LANDSCAPE 
GARDENING 


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Date  Due 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK.  .  A 


^f^-i^  1995 

|,6  1996 


TEXTBOOK 

OF 

LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

DESIGNED    ESPECIALLY    FOR    THE 

USE    OF    NON-PROFESSIONAL 

STUDENTS 


BY 

FRANK  A,  WAUGH 


Illustrated 


NEW    YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS,  Inc. 

London:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited 

1922 


Copyright,  1922 

BY 

FRANK  A.  WAUGH 


TECHNICAL  COMPOSITION  CO. 
CAMBRIDGE,  MASS.,  U.  S.  A. 


INSCRIPTION 

TO 

LIBERTY   HYDE   BAILEY 

Dear  Friend: 

You  have  taught  non-professional  courses  in  Landscape  Garden- 
ing. In  this  work  you  led  the  way.  You  have  also  loved  the 
native  landscape,  and  have  written  poems  about  it. 

For  many  years  I  have  wished  to  dedicate  a  book  to  you,  Writer 
of  Books,  Teacher  of  Teachers,  and  Believer  in  the  Landscape  but 
never  having  written  anything  worthy  of  such  distinction  I  have 
desisted  until  now,  when  it  appears  certain  that  I  never  can  produce 
such  a  book,  but  yet  more  certain  that  my  respect  and  affection 
for  you  should  find  some  formal  expression.  And  so  for  these  reasons 
this  book  is  inscribed  with  your  name,  as  indeed  every  related  sub- 
ject has  already  been  marked  with  your  name  and  freshened  by 
your  touch. 

You  may  be  well  assured  that  this  frail  acknowledgment  of 
esteem  is  but  a  tithe  of  all  that  is  owed  and  acknowledged  to  you 
by  your  thousands  of  former  students,  in  which  group  of  fortunate 
persons  I  greatly  rejoice  to  have  found  myself. 

FRANK   A.   WAUGH 
January,  1922. 


^'^^t 
%\'^ 


PROGRAM    OF   LESSONS 

Plan  and  Purpose  of  this  Book 

Introductory 

1.  Introduction 1 

2.  General  Principles .  . , 7 

3.  Design ._.........._..,.., , 13 

4.  Brick  Walk  ..,.....„....,,,,,  .o  ,,,,..„.......«„.,,.. .  17 

Surveying 

5.  Scaling  Plans ,...,..,..,..,.„,.,,,,„.,.,  21 

6.  Enlarging  and  Reducing  Plans ..........................  24 

7.  Paced  Survey 28 

8.  Use  of  Compass , 34 

9.  Compass  Survey 41 

10.  Leveling 45 

11.  Mapping  Contours ...,...,..,.. 51 

Landscape  Gardening  Details 

12.  Entrance  Road , . . . , ,...,.. ......  55 

13.  Cemetery  Entrance ,.....,, .,,.  ^ ........ .  58 

14.  Park  Entrance , 61 

15.  Automobile  Turn 63 

16.  Cemetery  Lot 66 

17.  Streets  —  Cross  Sections 70 

18.  Streets  —  General  Study 75 

19.  Street  Trees  —  Varieties 78 

20.  Street  Trees  —  Technical  Studies 82 

21.  Street  Trees  —  Results 85 

22.  Base-ball  Field 88 

23.  Tennis  Court 91 

24.  Bowling  Green , 93 

25.  Village  Center.  . 96 

vii 


PROGRAM    OF    LESSONS 


Architectural  Details 

26.  Weil-Head 99 

27.  Garden  Seats , 103 

28.  Garden  Gate 108 

Domestic  Landscape  Gardening 

29.  Small  House  Lot 112 

30.  Suburban  Home  Grounds 118 

31.  Suburban  Home  Grounds 126 

32.  Formal  Garden 130 

33.  A  Garden  in  Natural  Style 139 

34.  Farmstead  Group 146 

35.  New  England  Farm  Group 155 

36.  Farmstead  Layout 159 

Civic  Problems 

37.  Outdoor  Theater 162 

38.  Church  Grounds 167 

39.  Railroad  Station  Grounds 170 

40.  Court-House  Square 178 

41.  Town  Common 182 

42.  Small  Town  Square 193 

43.  Playground 199 

44.  County  Fair  Grounds 203 

45.  Civic  Center 210 

46.  Country  School  Grounds 216 

47.  Cemetery  Improvement 224 

48.  Country  Road  Systems 231 

Plant  Materials  and  Planting 

49.  Trees 235 

50.  Hardy  Shrubs 242 

51.  Climbing  Vines 250 

52.  Hardy  Perennials 254 

53.  Foundation  Planting 261 

54.  Shrubbery  Border 266 

55.  Mixed  Border 269 

viii 


PROGRAM    OF    LESSONS 


Landscape 

56.  The  Native  Landscape , 272 

57.  The  Country  Road 279 

58.  Landscape  Types  —  The  Brook 288 

59.  The  Landscape  Links 295 

60.  National  Parks  and  Forests 303 

6L    State  Parks 322 

62.    Neighborhood  Parks 332 

Literature  of  Landscape  Gardening 338 

Index 334 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Frontispiece 

1.  Landscape  Gardening  in   the   Natural   Style 3 

2.  The  Formal  Style ...,.,,  4 

3.  A  Japanese  Garden 5 

4.  The  Brook  Motive 8 

5.  The  Pond  as  a  Landscape  Motive 9 

6.  The  Mountains  as  a  Landscape  Motive 10 

7.  Various  Arrangements  of  Trees  on  a  Lot 14 

8.  Designs  for  Walks  of  Brick  and  Cement 18 

9.  Brick  Walk  with  Flower  Border 19 

10.  Architect's  Scale 22 

11.  Proportional  Dividers 26 

12.  Pantograph 27 

13.  Plan  Drawn  from  Paced  Survey 32 

14.  Types  of  Compasses 35 

15.  Using  the  Pocket  Transit 37 

16.  Using  the  Prismatic  Compass 42 

17.  Survey  as  Sketched  in  the  Field 44 

18.  Using  the  Farm  Level 46 

19.  Using  the  Hand  Level 47 

20.  Profile  of  a  Road 49 

21.  Contours  Interpolated 53 

22.  Entrance  to  a  Private  Estate 56 

23.  Plan  of  Cemetery  Entrance 59 

24.  Perspective  of  Cemetery  Entrance 60 

25.  Entrance  to  a  Park 62 

26.  Automobile  Turn 64 

27.  Project  for  Two  Cemetery  Lots 67 

28.  Appropriate  Treatment  of  Cemetery  Lot 68 

29.  Street    Sections    Adopted    by    U.    S.    Housing    Corporation  71 

30.  Connecticut  State  Roads 71 

31.  Massachusetts  State  Highw.\ys 71 

32.  Wide  Street  with  Double  Row  of  Trees 72 

33.  Broad  Street  with  Central  Parking  Space 73 

34.  Plan  for  a  Residence  Street  in  a  Village 75 

35.  Pin  Oaks  in  Early  Winter 79 

36.  Palmettos  on  a  Street  in  Savannah 79 

xi 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 


37.  Live  Oak  in  Savannah 80 

38.  Good  Location  of  Sidewalk 83 

39.  The  Arching  American  Elms 86 

40.  Standard  Base-ball  Field 89 

4L    Standard  Plan  of  Tennis  Court 91 

42.  Plan  of  Circular  Bowling  Green 94 

43.  Village  Center,  Weston,  Mass 97 

44.  Village  Center  Looking  North 98 

45.  Studies  for  a  Well-Head 100 

46.  Perspective  Sketch  of  Well-Head 101 

47.  Simple  Rustic  Well-Head 102 

48.  Picturesque  Well-Head 102 

49.  Sketch  for  a  Practical  Garden  Seat 104 

50.  A  Good  Seat 105 

51.  Excellent  Type  of  Cement  Seat 105 

52.  Home-made  Garden  Seat  of  Cement 106 

53.  Rustic  Park  Seat 106 

54.  Wooden  Park  Bench 107 

55.  Plain  Gate  of  Matched  Lumber 108 

56.  Sketch  Design  for  Simple  Garden  Gate 109 

57.  Old  Fashioned  Wooden  Gate 109 

58.  Rose  Arch  used  as  Garden  Entrance 110 

59.  A  California  Garden  Gate Ill 

60.  Design  for  Small  Home  Grounds 113 

61.  Front  View  of  House  and  Grounds 114 

62.  Cosy  Small  Home  Grounds 115 

63.  Dwarf  Fruit  Trees 116 

64.  Plan  of  Typical  American  Suburban  Home  Grounds 119 

65.  Drawing  Rendered  in  Color 121 

66.  Cottage  Residence 123 

67.  The  Flower  Garden 124 

68.  Design  for  Large  Suburban  Lot 127 

69.  Flowering  Dogwood  on  the  Lawn 128 

70.  General  Plan  of  Formal  Garden 131 

71.  The  House  as  seen  from  the  Garden 131 

72.  The  Garden  Gate  and  Rose  Arch 132 

73.  The  Bird  Bath 132 

74.  The  Garden  Seat 132 

75.  Plan  of  a  Famous  Formal  Garden 134 

76.  General  View  of  a  Formal  Garden 135 

77.  Village  Home  Grounds  in  the  Natural  Style 140 

78.  Plan  of  Garden  in  the  Natural  Style 143 

xii 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 


79.  Garden  in  the  Natural  Style 144 

80.  General  Plan  of  Iowa  Farmstead 147 

81.  View  from  Main  Entrance 149 

82.  View  of  Residence  and  Garage 152 

83.  Typical  New  England  Farm  Group 156 

84.  View  from  the  South,  Farm  Group 157 

85.  Idealized  Farmstead 160 

86.  Outdoor  Theater  at  Anoka,  Minn 163 

87.  Plan  of  Outdoor  Theater 165 

88.  Design  for  Improvement  of  Church  Grounds 168 

89.  Church  Grounds  —  Existing  Entrance 169 

90.  Well-Treated  Railroad  Station  Grounds 171 

91.  Simple  Layout  of  Railroad  Station  Grounds 172 

92.  Railroad  Station  Grounds  (colored  drawing) 175 

93.  Typical  Court-House  Square 180 

94.  A  Large  Town  Common  of  the  Rectangular  Type 186 

95.  Small  Town  Common,  Triangular  Type 190 

96.  Forsyth  Park,  Savannah 194 

97.  Treatment  of  City  Square  in  Minneapolis 197 

98.  Plan  of  Playground,  Hardin  Square,  Chicago 199 

99.  Perspective  Sketch  and  Playground 200 

100.  Typical  City  Playfield,  Minneapolis     201 

101.  Modern  County  Fair  Grounds  in  Iowa 204 

102.  Aeroplane  View  Clay  County  Fair  Grounds 206 

103.  Civic  Center,  San  Francisco 211 

104.  Design  for  a  Civic  Center 212 

105.  A  Rural  Civic  Center 214 

106.  A  Clean  and  Orderly  Schoolground 217 

107.  Improvement  Plan  for  Rural  School 218 

108.  Country  School  Grounds  with  Playground  and  Gardens  .  220 

109.  Chapel  and  Plantings,  Graceland  Cemetery 225 

110.  The  Neglected  Cemetery 226 

111.  An  Ancient  Churchyard  Cemetery 227 

112.  Typical  Road  Plan  in  Government  Survey  Area 232 

113.  Typical  Section  of  New  England  Roads 233 

114.  The  American  Elm 236 

115.  Soulang's  Magnolia 237 

116.  The  Sugar  Maple 238 

117.  Bur  Oak  in  Winter  Dress 239 

118.  The  Springtime  Show  of  Lilacs 243 

1 19.  Rhododendrons  in  Flower 244 

120.  The  Native  Prairie  Rose 246 

xiii 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 


121.  Withe-Rod 248 

122.  AcTiNiDiA  AND  Trumpet  Vine 251 

123.  Clematis 252 

124.  Day  Lily 255 

125.  Japanese  Gold-Banded  Lily 256 

126.  Peony  Festiva  Maxima 258 

127.  Sunflowers 259 

128.  Foundation  Plantings 262 

129.  Good  Foundation  Plantings  on  Home  Grounds 263 

130.  Foundation  Plantings  Including  Vines 264 

131.  Screen  and  Border 267 

132.  Study  for  a  Mixed  Border 270 

133.  Lizard  Head  Peak,  Colorado 273 

134.  Multnomah  Falls,  Oregon 274 

135.  A  Canadian  Lake 275 

136.  Grain  Fields  in  Colorado 277 

137.  Map  of  Road 280 

138.  The  Curving  Country  Road 281 

139.  Junipers  along  the  Pasture  Fence 281 

140.  Across  the  Fields 282 

141.  Looking  Across  the  Valley 282 

142.  The  Farm  House 283 

143.  A  Drink  at  the  Pump 284 

144.  The  Cornfield 285 

145.  In  the  Thick  of  the  Woods 286 

146.  Where  the  Brook  Sings  to  the  Stones 289 

147.  A  Quiet  Pool 290 

148.  The  Trout  Pool 293 

149.  The  Fisherman  Brews  Some  Tea 293 

150.  The  Cornfield 296 

151.  Upland  —  Fields  and  Woods 296 

152.  A  Sunny  Road 297 

153.  White  Oaks  and  Sweet  Fern 297 

154.  Young  Hickories 299 

155.  Young  White  Pines 299 

156.  Old  Pine  Tree 301 

157.  Old  Faithful  at  Sunrise 304 

158.  PiEGAN  Mountain 305 

159.  Rocky  Mountain  National  Park 307 

160.  In  Camp 312 

161.  Dolly  Copp  Camp  Ground  ....    313 

162.  Rainbow  Bridge,  Arizona 316 


XIV 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 


163.  Waterson  Point,  New  York 322 

164.  Turkey  Run,  Indiana 327 

165.  Sugar  Loaf  Mountain,  Massachusetts 330 

166.  A  Dark  Pool  in  Holland  Glen 333 

167.  The  Mossy  Rocks 334 

168.  Where  the  Trail  Goes  In 335 


PLAN   AND    PURPOSE    OF  THIS   BOOK 

This  book  is  designed  for  the  instruction  of  non-professional 
students  in  landscape  gardening,  that  is  for  those  who  do  not  intend 
to  become  professional  landscape  gardeners.  At  the  same  time  the 
author  sincerely  hopes  that  the  book  will  not  turn  any  good  men 
away  from  the  profession. 

The  book  has  been  prepared  with  certain  definite  objects  in 
view,  as  follows: 

1.  To  teach  the  principles  of  universal  art,  viz.  the  principles 
of  order  and  design.  For  the  most  part  these  subjects  are  here  intro- 
duced in  concrete  problems  rather  than  in  abstract  statements  of 
principles. 

2.  To  give  a  working  understanding  of  these  principles  as 
applied  in  the  art  of  landscape  gardening. 

3.  To  apply  the  principles  of  landscape  gardening  to  the  do- 
mestic problems  of  the  average  citizen. 

4.  To  apply  the  principles  of  landscape  gardening  to  civic 
problems. 

5.  In  this  way  to  arouse  an  intelligent  and  constructive  interest 
in  civic  problems,  and  to  offer  a  practical  working  basis  of  citizen- 
ship. 

6.  To  bring  the  student  into  intelligent  contact  with  the  native 
landscape;  to  give  a  key  to  the  unsurpassable  and  omnipresent 
beauty  of  the  native  landscape;  to  indicate  the  great  personal  and 
social  value  of  the  landscape;  to  indicate  what  should  be  done  by 
nations,  states  and  communities  for  the  preservation  and  use  of 
the  native  landscape. 


xvu 


PLAN    AND     PURPOSE     OF     THIS    BOOK 

Methods 

The  plan  of  this  book  is  to  teach  the  necessary  lessons  through 
the  active  work  of  the  student  upon  concrete  problems.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  student  should  come  into  direct  contact  with  these 
problems  and  should  do  the  work  with  his  own  hands  and  mind. 
He  is  then  likely  to  secure  such  information  as  he  can  use  and  re- 
member such  as  he  uses. 

Open  discussions  amongst  the  members  of  the  class  are  spe- 
cifically suggested  in  several  lessons  and  may  profitably  be  under- 
taken on  many  others.  It  is  hoped  that  an  intelligent  and  sym- 
pathetic teacher  will  usually  be  at  hand  to  direct  the  discussions 
but  not  to  monopolize  them.  It  is  vitally  important  in  a  subject 
of  this  sort  that  the  student  should  express  himself  rather  than  to 
accept  dictation  from  anyone.  Authority,  which  has  a  high  place 
in  morals  and  religion,  is  of  doubtful  value  in  science,  and  of  no  value 
whatever  in  art. 

The  Field 

The  subject  of  landscape  gardening,  even  in  its  non-professional 
aspects,  involves  a  wide  range  of  material.  A  word  should  be  said 
about  the  resources  upon  which  it  is  necessary  to  draw. 

1.  Surveying  and  engineering:  The  student  must  know  some- 
thing of  simple  surveying  and  engineering.  It  is  quite  possible  that 
a  college  student  will  get  this  information  in  some  other  course, 
perhaps  in  farm  engineering  and  surveying.  When  such  instruction 
is  elsewhere  provided  it  may  naturally  be  omitted  from  the  present 
course. 

2.  Drawing  is  the  regular  language  of  the  landscape  gardener. 
Every  student  must  do  some  sort  of  mapping,  plan  making  and 
designing.  Quite  possibly  this  will  be  available  in  other  courses. 
If  it  is  not  some  attention  must  be  paid  to  it  here. 

3.  Plant  materials:  Some  acquaintance  with  trees,  shrubs, 
vines  and  hardy  herbaceous  materials  will  be  necessary  for  any 


PLAN    AND    PURPOSE     OF     THIS    BOOK 

student  of  landscape  gardening.  It  has  been  the  custom  however 
in  many  schools  to  magnify  this  branch  of  the  subject  out  of  pro- 
portion to  the  other  phases  of  landscape  gardening.  In  some  schools 
this  knowledge  of  plant  materials  is  available  in  other  courses,  and 
in  such  cases  this  section  of  the  present  book  may  be  omitted.  The 
plan  of  having  this  subject  handled  in  a  separate  course  is  to  be 
strongly  recommended. 

4.  Architectural  materials  and  methods  must  be  used  more  or 
less  in  landscape  gardening.  Professional  students  nearly  always 
take  collateral  courses  in  architecture.  The  non-professional  stu- 
dent should  give  such  attention  to  this  subject  as  time  and  op- 
portunity make  possible. 

5.  Principles  of  design:  These  principles  are  universal  and 
are  sometimes  well  taught  in  departments  of  drawing  or  under  the 
name  of  industrial  design,  home  decoration  or  other  characteriz- 
ations. These  principles  are  exceedingly  important  and  all  em- 
phasis should  be  placed  upon  their  study. 

6.  Domestic  problems  of  landscape  gardening  involving  the  ap- 
plication of  the  principles  of  design  to  home  grounds,  farms  and  estates: 
This  field  is  sometimes  assumed  to  constitute  the  whole  subject  of 
landscape  gardening  and  a  number  of  books  have  been  written  on 
these  particular  topics.  It  is  desirable  at  the  present  time  merely 
to  keep  this  branch  of  landscape  gardening  in  its  proper  relation 
to  other  branches  of  the  subject. 

7.  Civic  art,  including  city  planning,  regional  planning  and 
country  planning,  constitutes  a  large  and  highly  important  ap- 
plication of  the  principles  of  landscape  gardening. 

8.  The  native  landscape  not  only  forms  the  foundation  of 
landscape  gardening  but  also  supphes  a  reservoir  of  beauty  upon 
which  the  human  race  has  drawn  from  the  beginning  of  time  and 
which  is  now  of  the  utmost  importance  to  our  national  culture. 
This  natural  landscape  is  therefore  one  of  the  principal  subjects  of 
study  in  the  field  of  landscape  gardening. 

It  will  be  understood   at  once  therefore  that  the  subject  of 


PLAN    AND     PURPOSE     OF     THIS    BOOK 

landscape  gardening  covers  a  large  and  varied  field.  In  a  short 
course  of  one  term,  or  even  of  one  year,  it  will  be  impossible  to  ex- 
haust the  isubject  in  all  its  different  phases.  If  some  portions  of  the 
material  can  be  temporarily  detached  for  study  in  other  courses  the 
time  thus  gained  may  be  advantageously  applied  to  the  remainder. 
In  any  case  it  will  seem  desirable  to  the  teacher  and  the  student  to 
emphasize  certain  phases  of  the  subject,  giving  less  attention  to 
others. 

Laying  out  the  Course 

The  necessity  for  this  selection  will  be  understood  further 
through  a  simple  calculation  in  arithmetic.  The  present  book  offers 
62  chapters,  the  slightest  of  which  will  make  an  adequate  lesson  for 
any  class,  while  the  larger  chapters  contain  materials  and  problems 
enough  to  occupy  ten  or  a  dozen  lessons.  We  may  perhaps  estimate 
that  the  material  here  offered  will  be  sufficient  for  150  substantial 
class  exercises. 

Yet  this  is  not  all.  It  is  exceedingly  important  to  the  plan  of 
this  book  that  the  work  of  the  student  shall  take  hold  upon  the 
neighborhood  in  which  he  finds  himself.  Teacher  and  student 
should  therefore  strive  to  develop  all  the  practical  problems  of  the 
neighborhood,  whether  they  are  specifically  outlined  in  the  text  or 
not.  If  the  teacher  therefore  has  reasonable  enterprise  and  im- 
agination he  will  add  a  considerable  number  of  exercises  to  those 
here  outlined. 

Now  a  one-semester  college  or  high-school  course  having  three 
exercises  a  week  cannot  possibly  handle  more  than  48  exercises. 
If  the  course  in  landscape  gardening  is  continued  for  an  entire  year 
it  will  still  be  impossible  to  have  more  than  96  exercises,  and  this 
number  will  probably  be  considerably  diminished  through  the  usual 
exigencies  of  examination  periods,  vacations  and  the  like. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  will  be  necessary  for  each  teacher 
at  the  beginning  of  the  course  to  outline  a  program  of  exercises 
equal  to  the  number  of  periods  at  his  disposal.     This  program  will 


PLAN    AND     PURPOSE     OF     THIS     BOOK 

of  course  include  any  exercises  of  his  own  invention.  It  may  be 
hoped  that  the  student  will  not  altogether  neglect  the  exercises 
which  are  not  assigned  and  required.  Any  intelligent  student  who 
uses  this  text-book  for  three  or  four  months  is  pretty  apt  to  know  a 
good  deal  about  its  entire  contents.  If  the  course  is  as  successful 
as  it  ought  to  be  and  the  interest  of  the  student  is  thoroughly  awak- 
ened, he  will  naturally  exhaust  the  text-book  and  reach  out  for 
other  sources  of  information,  which  indeed  exist  in  great  abundance. 
Finally  the  author  wishes  the  teacher  and  student  the  utmost 
pleasure  in  the  study  of  the  fascinating  subject  of  landscape  garden- 
ing. 


LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 


LESSON  1 

Introduction 


HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  define  certain  ele- 
mentary terms  and  present  certain  general  princi- 
ples necessary  to  an  understanding  of  subsequent 
lessons. 

Definition 

Landscape  gardening  (called  also  landscape 
architecture,  landscape  engineering  or  landscape  design)  is  the  art 
of  improving  land  for  human  use  and  enjoyment  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  combine  the  maximum  of  utility  with  the  maximum  of  beauty. 

Art 

In  this  definition  the  term  art  signifies  fine  art  in  distinction 
from  the  practical  arts  or  hand-crafts.  The  definition  implies  that 
landscape  gardening  is  a  sister  art  with  painting,  sculpture,  archi- 
tecture and  music.  There  are,  in  fact,  may  points  of  close  resem- 
blance amongst  all  these  arts. 

Art  is  the  pursuit  of  beauty.  The  effort  to  realize  beauty  in 
any  medium  is  art.  Sweet  sounds  harmoniously  combined  con- 
stitute music;  beautiful  or  noble  ideas  beautifully  expressed  in 
metrical  language  are  poetry;  beautiful  forms  and  colors  pleasingly 
united  on  canvas  are  painting;  beautiful  trees,  hills  and  water 
arranged  to  make  an  attractive  picture  are  landscape  gardening. 
Beauty  is  the  end  of  art. 

1 

UBKAUr 


fHPEWT  UWMWi 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Every  work  of  art  must  be  pleasing  to  the  senses.  Music 
pleases  the  ear;  good  landscape  pleases  the  eye.  This  element  of 
sensuous  pleasure  is  essential.  It  has  sometimes  been  argued  that 
art  must  satisfy  the  intelligence;  also  that  it  must  satisfy  the  moral 
judgment.  Neither  statement  is  true.  Art  is  independent  of  logic 
and  of  morals,  though  either  one  may  be  brought  in  at  times  to  the 
manifest  advantage  of  art. 

Art  is  to  be  understood  as  distinguished  from  science.  "Science 
is  classified  knowledge."  Art  is  the  pursuit  of  beauty.  Science 
seeks  to  know  the  truth,  to  defend  the  truth  and  to  overthrow  what 
is  false.  Art  strives  only  to  know  what  is  beautiful,  to  defend  the 
beautiful,  and  to  rid  the  world  of  everything  ugly. 

The  Field 

Landscape  gardening  has  for  its  field  of  operations  "all  outdoors" 
in  a  quite  literal  sense.  Some  of  the  main  purposes,  however,  are 
the  following:  (1)  To  improve  home  grounds  in  order  that  the 
exterior  of  every  home  shall  be  clean,  orderly  and  beautiful.  (2) 
To  improve  pubhc  grounds  in  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  reasons. 
This  branch  of  landscape  gardening  is  called  Civic  Art  (see  Lessons 
37-48).  (3)  To  select,  protect,  and  make  accessible  the  best  examples 
and  types  of  the  native  landscape,  as  is  done  in  National  and  State 
parks  (see  Lessons  56-62).  (4)  To  interpret  the  beauty  of  the 
landscape. 

Styles 

It  is  customary  to  recognize  several  different  styles  in  landscape 
gardening.  Style  may  be  defined  as  the  national  or  racial  quality 
in  landscape  gardening.  In  this  art  the  word  style  has  a  meaning 
wholly  different  from  that  given  to  it  in  the  other  arts,  especially  in 
literature. 

The  styles  usually  mentioned  are  the  English,  the  Italian  and 
the  Japanese;  but  there  exist,  at  least  theoretically,  also  a  Chinese 
style,  a  Persian  style,  an  Egyptian  style,  etc.     The  EngUsh,  Italian 

2 


I N  TROD U  CT ION 


and  Japanese  styles  have  sometimes  been  called  respectively  the 
natural,  the  formal  or  architectural  and  the  picturesque.  This 
synonomy  is  very  superficial  and  should  generally  be  avoided. 


Landscape  Gardening  in  the  Natural  Style 


More  logically  stated  the  natural  or  informal  method  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  architectural  or  formal  on  the  other,  are  not 
styles  at  all,  but  fundamental  garden  forms.  Any  of  the  properly 
national  styles  may  be  either  formal  or  informal.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  the  formal  and  the  informal  methods  have  both  been  used  suc- 
cessfully both  in  Italy  and  in  England 

3 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

These  distinctions,  however,  are  somewhat  abstruse  and  hardly 
necessary  to  the  work  of  the  beginner.  The  young  student  may 
safely  speak  of  formal  gardening  and  of  the  natural  style  because 
these  terms  are  in  common  use  even  though  they  are  slightly  illogical. 


Fig.  2.    The  Formal  Style  —  California.    Photograph  by  John  W.  Gregg 


Utility  and  Beauty 

Another  phrase  in  our  definition  should  have  a  short  examin- 
ation. We  have  said  that  our  object  in  landscape  gardening  is  to 
secure  the  maximum  of  utility  combined  with  the  maximum  of 
beauty.  It  is  sometimes  assumed  that  utility  and  beauty  are  con- 
flicting qualities  and  that  beauty  is  necessarily  marred  whenever 
we  intrude  anything  "practical"  or  merely  useful.  This  idea  is 
absolutely  wrong  and  mischievous.  The  fundamental  truth  is  the 
exact  opposite,  viz.  that  the  maximum  of  beauty  can  be  realized 
only  when  practical  requirements  have  been  fully  met.  So  radical 
is  this  principle  that  some  of  the  great  philosophers  have  held  that 
this  satisfaction  of  practical  utilities  is  the  sole  foundation  of  beauty. 

In  common  experience  we  certainly  do  find  many  instances  in 
which  practical  utilities  are  far  from  beautiful.  A  steel  smokestack, 
an  iron  bridge,  a  wooden  silo  are  almost  certain  to  be  ugly.     But 

4 


INTROD  UCTION 


there  are  inoffensive  smokestacks,  noble  and  beautiful  bridges 
and  distinctly  good-looking  siloes.  And  the  beautiful  smokestacks, 
bridges  and  siloes  are  just  as  useful  as  the  ugliest  ones  ever  built. 

It  is  often  thought  that  a  large  part  of  landscape  gardening  is 
directed  to  covering  up  and  disguising  unsightly  but  necessary  ob- 
jects. Unfortunately  work  of  this  sort  has  to  be  done  sometimes: 
—  we  seldom  fmd  perfectly  ideal  conditions  in  this  present  world; 
but  our  first  effort  should  always  be  to  render  every  useful  object 
beautiful  instead  of  merely  trying  to  hide  it.  Particularly  repre- 
hensible is  the  practice  of  covering  up  dirty  and  unsanitary  nuisances 
by  such  means  as  planting  screens  of  "ornamental"  trees  and  shrubs. 
As  though  a  garbage  dump  could  be  ornamented! 


Fig.  3.    A  Japanese  Garden.    The  Japanese  Style  in  Japan 

Readings 
The  pupil  will  easily  fmd  innumerable  books  on  art  and  enough 
on  landscape  gardening,  some  good,  many  indifferent,  others  worth- 

5 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

less.  He  should  read  as  many  good  books  on  art  as  possible.  In 
the  field  of  landscape  gardening  a  large  and  valuable  literature  is 
available.  Some  of  the  most  important  works  are  listed  in  the 
Bibliography  at  the  close  of  this  book;  these  and  other  books  on 
the  subject  should  be  read  and  digested  as  opportunity  offers. 


LESSON   2 

General  Principles 

HERE  are  certain  general  principles  underlying  all 
art,  including  landscape  gardening.  The  most 
important  of  these  principles  must  now  be  stated 
and  should  be  given  careful  study  by  the  pupil. 

Unity 

The  first  principle  of  all  art  is  unity.  This 
means  that  each  work  of  art,  large  or  small,  must  have  one  and  only 
one  meaning,  and  that  every  part  shall  contribute  to  this  meaning. 
Stated  in  physical  terms,  all  parts  must  be  organized  into  one  body, 
each  part  being  completely  subordinate  to  the  interests  of  the  whole. 
Every  part  which  does  not  assist  in  this  central  effect  must  be 
expunged,  no  matter  how  beautiful  or  interesting  it  may  be  in  it- 
self. 

The  extreme  term  in  unity  is  monotony.  When  only  one  color, 
only  one  tone,  only  one  figure  is  used  the  result  may  be  monotonous. 
A  garden  planted  with  nothing  but  hollyhocks  or  a  cemetery  set 
exclusively  with  red  cedars  would  probably  be  monotonous.  Even 
so  it  is  better  to  have  monotony  than  to  lose  unity;  and  in  particular 
cases  monotony  is  the  height  of  artistic  achievement. 

The  elimination  of  diverse  colors,  and  forms  therefore  tends 
toward  unity,  or  at  least  toward  simplicity,  which  is  also  desirable 
in  itself.  Nearly  all  landscape  gardening  shows  too  many  forms, 
too  many  colors,  too  many  different  kinds  of  plants.  The  instances 
in  which  unity  is  carried  too  far  toward  monotony  are  so  rare  that 
they  are  doubly  interesting  as  curiosities. 

Unity  is  frequently  secured  through  the  development  of  utilities. 
If  every  part  of  a  work  of  landscape  gardening  has  a  definite  and 


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obvious  practical  purpose   this   dominating  purpose  reconciles   all 
parts  and  unifies  the  whole. 

In  actual  practice  the  most  powerful  means  of  securing  unity 
lies  in  adopting  a  clear-cut  motive  (see  below)  and  adhering  rigidly 
to  it. 

Variety 

Next  to  unity  stands  variety  as  a  fundamental  necessity  in  art. 
Indeed  art  is  sometimes  defined  as  unity  in  variety.  To  make  a 
work  of  art  permanently  interesting  and  pleasing  a  certain  amount 
of  variety  is  needful. 


Fig.  4.    The  Brook  Motive 

Obviously  there  is  a  certain  antagonism  between  unity  and 
variety.  Either  one  would  be  comparatively  easy  to  achieve  if  the 
other  could  be  disregarded.  Yet  the  two  are  not  incompatible. 
It  is  nearly  always  possible  to  secure  both  in  the  same  composition. 

8 


GENERAL     PRINCIPLES 


It  is  possible  but  not  always  easy,  for  the  greatest  skill  of  the  artist 
is  required  to  this  precise  end,  viz.  to  bring  together  many  various 
elements  into  one  harmonious  whole.  The  beginner  need  not  be 
surprised  or  discouraged  if  he  is  unable  at  first  to  accomplish  all 
that  the  best  artists  can 
accomplish,  but  he  should  ^ 

have  faith  to  believe  that 
a  satisfying  solution  may 
be  reached  even  in  the 
face  of  great  difTiculties. 

In  landscape  garden- 
ing variety  is  particularly 
easy  to  reach  —  so  easy  in 
fact  that  it  is  nearly  al- 
ways overdone.  The  land- 
scape gardener  is  able  to 
gain  variety  in  the  follow- 
ing ways,  amongst  others: 
(1)  in  topography  and 
ground  forms ;  (2)  in  grad- 
ing land;  (3)  in  the  infin- 
ite number  of  trees,  shrubs 
and  flowers  at  his  disposal; 
(4)  in  their  varied  forms, 
and  (5)  colors,  and  (6)  in 
the  endless  combinations 
in  which  they  may  be 
grouped;  (7)  in  the  intro- 
duction of  architectural  and  sculptural  embelhshments;  (8)  in  the 
use  of  water,  still  or  flowing  (9)  in  changes  of  season,  of  weather  and 
of  the  hours  of  the  day. 

The  landscape  gardener  must  have  all  these  resources  at  his 
command,  but  he  must  use  them  with  great  restraint  or  he  will 
presently  find  that  he  has  sacrificed  his  last  opportunity  for  unity 
of  effect. 


Fig.  5.     The  Pond  as  a  Landscape  Motive 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Motive 

Every  worth-while  work  of  art  has  a  subject,  theme  or  motive. 
In  landscape  gardening  the  term  motive  is  perhaps  most  eligible, 
though  all  three  words  mean  the  same  thing.  Everyone  is  familiar 
with  the  theme  or  subject  in  literature,  and  those  who  have  studied 


i^hotograph  by  Fred  C.  Sears 

music  should  understand  what  is  meant  by  a  musical  theme.  It  is 
also  reasonably  clear  that  any  painting  must  have  some  sort  of  sub- 
ject. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  however  to  state  exactly  what  is  a  land- 
scape gardening  motive.  Let  us  illustrate  by  saying  that  a  park 
at  Niagara  Falls  could  hardly  do  anything  else  than  exhibit  the 
Falls.     That  would  necessarily  be  the  theme  or  motive.     So  a  more 

10 


GENERAL      PRINCIPLES 


commonplace  park  running  along  a  mile  of  some  minor  stream  would 
nevertheless  fmd  the  stream  beautiful,  would  strive  primarily  to 
exhibit  the  beauties  of  the  stream  —  would  in  short  adopt  the  stream 
as  its  motive.  That  park  would  be  the  story  of  Paint  Creek  or 
Duck  River  just  as  truly  as  "Hamlet"  is  the  story  of  Hamlet. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  expound  the  principles  upon  which 
landscape  motives  are  chosen  and  worked  out.  It  may  be  barely 
suggested  that,  as  a  rule,  in  each  landscape  tract  of  land  developed 
the  selected  motive  is  presented  in  a  series  of  paragraphs  or  epi- 
sodes. In  each  paragraph  some  different  treatment  is  given  to  the 
motive.  For  illustration  let  us  imagine  four  paragraphs  of  the 
Paint  Creek  motive  suggested  above.  In  the  first  picture  we  might 
see  the  rapids  with  the  water  singing  over  the  stones;  at  the  second 
paragraph  we  might  see  flat  quiet  water  with  stately  beech  trees 
reflected  from  the  opposite  shore;  at  the  third  paragraph  we  might 
cross  the  stream  over  a  bridge  getting  a  long  view  down  the  channel 
toward  a  distant  hill;  at  the  fourth  paragraph,  at  the  bend  of  the 
creek,  where  the  old  Indian  camp  used  to  be,  the  park  maker  might 
introduce  two  or  three  Indian  tepees,  always  of  great  pictorial  value, 
and  these  would  serve  to  recall  the  history  and  legends  of  Paint 
Creek. 

Analogy 

The  youthful  pupil  in  high  school  or  college  will  fmd  the  analogy 
between  rhetoric  and  landscape  gardening  particularly  suggestive 
at  this  point.  He  has  been  taught  to  write  essays,  compositions  or 
"themes."  He  has  been  taught  the  demands  of  unity  —  has  learned 
to  stick  strictly  to  one  subject.  At  the  same  time  he  has  been 
taught  to  give  the  subject  varied  treatment,  sometimes  serious, 
sometimes  witty,  sometimes  statistical,  sometimes  poetic.  Finally 
he  has  been  taught  to  treat  his  theme  paragraphically.  Each 
paragraph  must  have  a  quality  of  its  own  but  it  must  first  of  all 
bear  directly  upon  the  theme  in  hand.  Landscape  gardening  and 
literature  come  very  close  together  in  all  these  points. 

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Exercises 

1.  Select  some  piece  of  landscape  gardening  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  preferably  the  best  example  available.  Examine  this 
critically  with  respect  to  unity  and  variety.  Indicate  exactly  where 
unity  has  been  gained  and  where  it  has  been  lost;  also  where  de- 
sirable variety  begins  to  be  undesirable.  It  is  important  in  this 
exercise  to  discover  the  maximum  of  good.  Much  less  emphasis 
should  be  placed  upon  defects. 

2.  Select  some  tract  of  park  or  comparatively  wild  land  in 
the  vicinity.  Study  this  with  care  endeavoring  to  select  a  land- 
scape motive  most  natural  to  the  tract.  Define  this  motive  in 
writing.  Then  project  three  to  six  separate  episodes  or  paragraphs, 
describing  just  where  and  how  the  several  episodes  might  be  de- 
veloped. 

References 

Hubbard  and  Kimball,  Landscape  Design,  New  York,  1917. 

Waugh,  Landscape  Gardening,  New  York,  1900. 

Downing,  Landscape  Gardening,  Chap.  II,  New  York,  1921. 


12 


LESSON   3 

Design 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  develop  the  idea 
of  design  and  to  give  the  pupil  a  few  elementary 
exercises  dealing  with  problems  in  this  field. 

It  has  already  been  explained  in  lesson  1 
that  landscape  gardening  is  an  art  which  seeks 
to  promote  beauty.  One  of  the  principal  aids  to 
beauty  is  order,  and  order  is  achieved  by  design. 

Definition 

Design  might  be  defined  as  the  orderly  arrangement  of  all  the 
elements  in  a  given  area.  The  best  design  is  that  which  achieves 
the  greatest  degree  of  order,  and  the  poorest  design  is  one  which 
shows  the  maximum  of  disorder. 

The  most  direct  means  of  gaining  order  is  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  agreements  among  objects.  If  objects  are  all  of  the  same 
size,  form,  color,  much  has  been  gained  in  comparison  with  a  field 
in  which  the  objects  are  of  miscellaneous  sizes,  forms  and  colors. 
However  after  the  designer  has  secured  objects  all  aUke  an  additional 
and  important  degree  of  beauty  can  be  gained  by  their  orderly 
arrangement.  They  may  be  placed  with  their  main  lines  standing 
in  the  same  direction;  they  may  all  be  placed  in  the  same  plane; 
they  may  be  arranged  in  straight  rows  or  circles,  or  in  some  other 
easily  understood  figure  —  that  is  in  some  understandable  order. 

Illustration 

The  accompanying  diagram  may  be  allowed  to  represent  a 
public  square  planted  in  four  different  ways.  In  diagram  A  the 
trees  are  of  various  species,  some  deciduous,  some  evergreens,  and 

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TEXT    BOOK    OF    LANDSCAPE    GARDENING 


S.o 


o 


A 


o 


^ 


o 


O 


O 


ri 


ooooo 
o  o 
o 

o 


o 
ooooo 


B 


OoOqO 
O       X) 

o 
o 


oOqOo 


oooo 
o    o 


OO 


c  I> 

Fig.  7.    Various  Arrangements  of  Trees  on  a  Lot 
14 


DESIGN 


are  scattered  aimlessly  about  over  the  area.  There  are  very  few 
agreements  and  no  design. 

In  diagram  B  the  trees  are  all  of  the  same  kind  and  size  and  are 
arranged  in  straight  rows,  which  rows  are  parallel  with  the  bound- 
aries of  the  rectangle.  If  the  student  will  imagine  these  four  rows 
of  trees,  still  kept  as  rows,  but  placed  at  various  angles  with  the 
boundaries,  he  will  see  that  the  difference  is  very  great  in  favor  of 
the  arrangement  as  shown.  In  other  words  the  design  here  illus- 
trated has  a  larger  number  of  geometrical  agreements. 

In  diagram  C  an  equally  definite  arrangement  has  been  secured, 
introducing  curved  lines.  This  presents  a  certain  amount  of  variety, 
which  is  in  general  agreeable. 

In  diagram  D  a  totally  different  type  of  design  has  been  adopted, 
and  one  which  is  very  effective  in  dealing  with  certain  problems. 

Observation 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  three  designs  offered  viz.  B,  C,  and 
D,  are  all  formal  in  character.  This  must  not  be  understood  as  an 
argument  in  favor  of  formal  design.  It  is  altogether  possible  to 
develop  a  logical  design  of  informal  character,  and  such  design  is 
especially  important  in  landscape  architecture.  At  the  same  time 
informal  design  is  much  more  difficult  than  formal  design;  and 
since  the  purpose  of  this  present  lesson  is  merely  to  introduce  the 
idea  of  design  as  clearly  and  simply  as  possible  it  is  best  to  adhere 
to  these  simple,  formal  examples. 

Problem 

The  student  should  plan  several  other  arrangements  of  trees 
on  the  same  area  here  shown. 

As  a  second  step  in  the  problem  it  will  be  worth  while  to  use 
two  kinds  of  trees  one  represented  by  circles  and  one  by  triangles. 
In  order  to  visualize  the  results  one  may  consider  the  circles  to 
represent  maples  and  the  triangles  to  represent  spruces. 

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TEXT    BOOK    OF    LANDSCAPE    GARDENING 

Next  the  pupil  should  undertake  to  make  similar  arrangements 
on  areas  of  other  sizes  and  dimensions,  some  of  them  irregular  in 
form 

Additional  Study 

The  subject  of  design  is  of  such  fundamental  importance  that 
the  pupil  should  follow  it  as  far  as  his  time  and  facilities  will  allow. 
There  are  many  good  books  on  design  some  of  which  are  listed  in  the 
bibliography,  page  339,  and  the  student  should  give  them  extended 
and  careful  study. 


16 


LESSON  4 

Brick  Walk 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  give  the  pupil  fur- 
ther experience  in  the  simplest  problems  of  design. 
The  problem  here  presented  is  the  design  of  a 
brick  walk  (or  brick  and  cement)  laid  in  pattern. 

General  Considerations 

The  pattern-work  in  brick,  or  brick  and 
cement  or  brick  and  tile,  is  intended  to  make  the  walk  more  in- 
teresting and  attractive  than  a  walk  of  plain  brick  or  dull  cement. 
But  it  must  be  clearly  understood  that  this  enhancing  of  interest 
must  be  kept  within  bounds.  It  may  be  overdone.  Brick  work 
of  several  different  colors,  or  of  bright  conspicuous  colors,  may  be 
so  gaudy  as  to  attract  attention  unduly  to  itself.  It  is  a  matter  of 
good  taste  to  draw  the  distinction  between  a  design  which  would 
make  a  walk  agreeably  interesting  and  one  which  would  be  disa- 
greeably conspicuous.  In  matters  of  taste  like  this  no  rules  can 
ever  be  given. 

In  general  the  simpler  patterns  are  to  be  preferred,  and  the 
quietest  colorings.  If  the  house  is  somewhat  florid  inco  lored  brick, 
stucco  or  bright  paint,  and  if  there  are  competing  interests,  such 
as  fancy  gates,  brilliant  beds  of  flowers,  fountains  and  other  "orna- 
mental" features,  then  a  more  fanciful  and  colorful  design  may  be 
adopted  for  the  walk. 

Examples 

In  Figure  8  four  designs  are  sketched.  In  two  of  these  brick 
alone  are  used;  presumably  all  of  one  kind.  In  the  other  two  brick 
are  combined  with  cement  areas  in  making  up  the  pattern;  and 
bricks  of  two  different  shades  may  be  chosen. 

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Fig.  8.     Designs  for  Walks  of  Brick  and  Cement 

18 


BRICKWALK 


Equipment 

For  this  exercise  the  pupil  will  need  the  usual  drawing  equipment, 
such  as  drawing  board,  T-square,  triangles,  scale,  with  paper 
and  pencils.  He  ought  to  have  also  colored  crayons  or  water 
colors. 


Brick  Walk  with  Flower  Border 


Problems 

The  student  should  first  redraw  one  or  more  of  these  designs  on 
a  larger  scale,  not  less  than  V  =  V.  These  drawings  may  be 
made  in  pencil  and  colored  with  crayons. 

The  student  should  then  make  two  to  four  original  designs, 
keeping  to  the  simplest  combinations.  These  designs  may  be  at 
the  same  scale.     The  first  ones  should  be  in  pencil  and  colored  with 

19 


TEXT    BOOK    OF    LANDSCAPE    GARDENING 


crayons;    the  later  ones  should  be  finished  in  ink  and  tinted  with 
water  colors. 

When  this  exercise  is  undertaken  by  a  class  it  will  be  very  de- 
sirable to  place  all  the  designs  on  exhibition  together  for  comparison 
and  criticism. 


20 


LESSON   5 

Scaling  Plans 

HIS  lesson  is  intended  to  familiarize  the  pupil  with 
the  use  of  scales  in  making  and  reading  maps  and 
plans. 


Definition 

The  relation  of  a  distance  on  a  plan  to  the 
distance  which  it  represents  on  the  object  is 
called  the  scale  of  the  plan.  Scales  are  based  on  the  distance  in 
feet  on  the  object  which  is  represented  by  one  inch  on  the  plan  or 
on  the  number  of  inches  on  the  plan  which  represents  one  foot  on 
the  object.  In  small  scale  plans  an  inch  represents  a  considerable 
distance,  often  50,  80,  100  or  even  several  hundred  feet.  In  medium 
scale  plans  an  inch  may  represent  10,  20,  30  or  40  feet.  In  very 
large  scale  plans  an  inch  may  represent  8  or  4  or  2  or  1  feet  or 
sometimes  only  a  fraction  of  a  foot.  Odd  scales,  such  as  those  in 
which  one  inch  represents  16  or  16|  or  32  feet  etc.  are  remnants 
of  the  old  Gunter's  or  surveyors  measure  and  are  now  little  used,  the 
decimal  system  being  much  more  convenient. 

Applications 

Practically  all  engineers'  and  landscape  gardeners'  surveys  and 
plans  are  made  on  a  scale  of  one  inch  representing  some  multiple 
of  ten  feet.  The  surveys  and  general  plans  of  large  areas  are  on 
relatively  small  scales,  the  detail  plans  being  usually  on  a  scale  of 
1"  =  20'  or  1"  =  40'.  Occasionally  plans  are  made  to  a  scale  of 
1"  =  10'  or  1"  =  30',  but  these  scales  are  not  so  much  used. 

Architects'  plans  represent  smaller  areas  and  must  show  more 
detail  than  do  engineers'   plans.     They  are  therefore  usually  on 

21 


TEXT    BOOK    OF    LANDSCAPE    GARDENING 

much  larger  scales,  from  \"  =  8'  to  \"  =  1',  or  the  details  may  be 
drawn  1,  2,  3  or  4  inches  on  the  plan  representing  one  foot  on  the 
object,  or  the  plan  may  even  be  full  size. 

A  detailed  statement  of  the  scale  should  always  be  given  on  a 
plan.  It  is  usually  stated  thus  —  1"  =  20'  or  "Scale  one  inch 
equals  twenty  feet." 

"Graphic  scales"  are  often  used.  When  this  is  done  a  straight 
line  is  ruled,  usually  near  the  title,  and  divided  into  lengths  equal  to 
one,  five,  ten,  etc.  feet  at  the  scale  at  which  the  plan  is  drawn,  ex- 
actly as  the  scale  of  miles  is  shown  on  a  geographical  map.  A 
graphic  scale  is  nearly  always  to  be  preferred  to  a  numerical  scale, 
for  the  following  reasons:  First  the  graphic  scale  makes  it  possible 
to  take  off  distances  on  the  edge  of  a  card  or  paper  and  measure 
them  on  the  plan  when  no  other  scale  is  at  hand.  Second,  if  the 
plan  shrinks  with  age,  or  if  it  is  photographed  down  to  a  smaller 
size  for  use  as  an  illustration  in  a  book,  or  for  other  uses,  the  graphic 
scale  always  holds  good,  while  a  statement  that  one  inch  represents 
a  definite  number  of  feet  would  then  be  incorrect. 

Methods  of  Working 

In  drawing  plans  to  standard  scales,  or  in  reading  distances  on 
plans  so  drawn,  the  worker  should  always  use  a  scale  made  of  paper, 
wood,  celluloid  or  metal.  These  scales  are  made  in  several  different 
patterns  and  are  graduated  in  the  various  systems  and  scales  re- 
quired. The  simplest  and  most  useful  scale  for  the  student  of 
landscape  gardening  is  the  triangular  engineer's  scale,  one  foot 
long,  shown  in  Figure  10.  These  scales  are  usually  divided  to  read 
10,  20,  30,  40,  50  and  60  parts  (or  feet)  per  inch. 

Fig.  10.    Architect's  Scale 

The  student  will  inevitably  find  many  plans  which  do  not  corre- 
spond to  any  standard  scales.     Most  of  the  drawings  in  this  book, 

22 


SCALING     PLANS 


though  originally  made  to  standard  scales,  are  now  "out  of  scale" 
because  they  have  been  reduced  in  size  in  the  process  of  engraving. 
Any  photographic  reproduction  of  a  map  or  plan  is  likely  to  change 
the  scale  in  this  manner;  and  drawings,  especially  blueprints,  often 
shrink  appreciably  so  as  to  make  the  use  of  the  standard  scale  im- 
practicable. 

Whenever  such  a  drawing  contains  a  proper  graphic  scale  it 
will  be  easy  to  read  any  measurements.  If  necessary  a  longer  scale 
can  be  constructed  on  a  piece  of  drawing  paper  by  copying  and 
extending  the  graphic  scale.  If  no  graphic  scale  is  given  one  can 
still  be  made  providing  the  true  length  of  any  line  in  the  drawing  is 
known  or  can  be  ascertained.  This  known  length  can  then  be  sub- 
divided and  a  graphic  scale  constructed. 

It  is  important  that  all  these  considerations  be  fully  understood 
by  the  pupil  for  they  will  be  found  essential  in  handling  the  exercises 
assigned  in  this  book. 

Practice 

The  pupil  at  this  point  should  have  considerable  practice  in 
reading  distances  on  plans  and  maps  of  all  sorts.  Besides  the  nu- 
merous examples  found  in  this  book  he  should  examine  maps  in 
geographies,  plans  of  architects,  building  and  bridge  plans  in  books 
of  all  sorts,  and  should  make  sure  that  he  can  determine  quickly  and 
accurately  any  measurements  shown  on  any  legible  plan  or  map 


23 


LESSON   6 

Enlarging  and  Reducing  Plans 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  teach  the  pupil  how- 
to  enlarge  or  reduce  plans  or  maps,  that  is  how 
to  redraw  them  at  a  larger  or  a  smaller  scale. 
There  are  several  methods  of  doing  the  work, 
any  one  of  which  may  be  used  for  either  enlarg- 
ing or  reducing.  Some  of  the  methods  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  used  in  making  surveys,  for  sur- 
veying is  simply  reducing  a  plan  from  full  size  to  some  smaller  scale. 

Cross-Section  Method 

The  plan  to  be  enlarged  or  reduced  is  ruled  off  with  two  sets  of 
parallel  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other  equally  spaced,  usually 
at  some  multiple  of  five  or  ten  feet  apart  at  the  scale  of  the  plan. 
The  lines  in  one  direction  are  numbered  and  those  in  the  other  di- 
rection lettered.  The  sheet  on  which  the  enlargement  or  reduction 
is  to  be  made  is  then  ruled  off  in  the  same  way,  the  Hues  being  spaced 
relatively  the  same  distance  apart,  that  is  the  same  number  of  feet 
apart  at  the  new  scale  and  numbered  and  lettered  as  on  the  original 
plan.  The  lines  and  objects  of  the  plan  are  then  drawn  in  each 
square  in  their  relative  positions,  the  distances  being  scaled  or  es- 
timated depending  on  the  accuracy  required.  This  method  is 
similar  to  a  cross-section  survey. 

The  Radial  Method 

A  transparent  paper  or  cloth  is  firmly  tacked  down  over  the 
plan  so  that  they  will  not  move  on  one  another.  A  point,  usually 
somewhat  central  in  location,  is  then  taken  from  which  the  distance 
is  measured,  at  the  scale  of  the  original,  along  a  straight  line  to  any 

24 


ftormr  uBMJff 


ENLARGING    AND   REDUCING   PLANS 

object  on  the  plan  beneath.  The  position  of  the  object  is  then  lo- 
cated on  the  tracing  paper  or  cloth  along  the  same  line  and  at  rela- 
tively the  same  distance  from  the  central  point  at  the  new  scale. 
Instead  of  changing  the  scale  each  time  it  is  often  easier  to  multiply 
the  original  reading  by  the  ratio  of  enlargement  or  reduction  and 
plot  the  point  without  moving  the  scale.  This  method  is  similar  to 
the  work  done  at  any  one  station  of  a  stadia-transit  survey  or  a 
plane-table  survey. 

Parallel  Courses  and  Proportional  Measurements 

In  reducing  or  enlarging  a  simple  rectilinear  outline  drawing 
as  of  a  building,  field  or  outline  survey,  a  very  easy  method  is  to 
tack  a  transparent  paper  or  cloth  over  the  drawing,  then  starting 
from  some  angle  draw  a  line  directly  over  the  first  side  and  of  the 
required  length  at  the  new  scale,  draw  through  its  end  a  line  parallel 
to  the  second  side  and  measure  off  the  required  proportional  length. 
Continue  in  this  way  making  the  corresponding  sides  of  the  original 
and  the  new  drawing  parallel  and  proportional.  The  last  course  will 
coincide  with  the  last  course  of  the  original  and  its  farther  end  will 
coincide  with  the  starting  point.  Lines  drawn  from  the  starting 
point  through  any  angle  of  the  new  plan  will  pass  through  the 
corresponding  angle  of  the  original. 

A  starting  point  may  be  taken  and  all  the  work  done  entirely 
to  one  side  or  within  the  original  so  long  as  all  corresponding  sides 
are  drawn  parallel  and  proportional.  This  method  of  reducing  is 
similar  to  the  use  of  the  plane-table  or  oriented  drawing  board  in 
locating  a  broken  line  from  successive  stations.  It  is  merely  a  little 
different  application  of  the  radial  method. 

The  Pantograph  Method 

The  pantograph  is  a  mechanical  device  consisting  of  two  pairs 
of  parallel  bars  so  arranged  that  a  pencil  mounted  on  one  bar  will 
move  in  any  direction  at  a  definite  relation  to  the  motion  of  a  tracer 

25 


TEXT   BOOK   OF   LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 


point  mounted  on  another  bar.  The  ratio  of  this  relation  may  be 
varied  by  adjusting  the  bars,  the  pencil  and  the  tracer  point  to 
various  positions.  When  the  tracer  is  drawn  along  the  lines  of  a 
plan  the  pencil  will  reproduce  the  plan  at  a  pro- 
portionately larger  or  smaller  scale.  When  the 
pencil  describes  the  larger  motion  the  new  plan 
will  be  an  enlargement  but  if  the  pencil  and 
tracer  are  transposed  in  position  so  that  the 
pencil  describes  the  lesser  motion  the  new  plan 
will  be  a  reduction.  This  method  is  simply  a 
mechanical  application  of  the  radial  method,  the 
fixed  end  of  the  pantograph  bars  corresponding 
to  the  central  point  used  in  that  method. 

Proportional  Dividers 

This  is  a  mechanical  device  having  two  legs 
which  cross  at  a  movable  pivot  and  open  pro- 
portionally on  opposite  sides  of  it;  this  propor- 
tion may  be  varied  by  moving  the  pivot  back  or 
forth  along  the  legs  of  the  instrument.  When 
adjusted  so  as  to  give  the  desired  ratio  the  pivot 
is  clamped  in  place  and  measurements  taken  off 
the  original  plan  with  one  end  of  the  instrument 
are  plotted  on  the  new  plan  with  the  other  end. 
This  is  not  so  much  a  separate  method  of  enlarge- 
ment or  reduction  as  it  is  an  instrument  which 

may  be  made  use  of  in  any  other  method.     This  method  is  one  of 

the  most  practicable  of  all. 


Fig.  11.   Proportional 
Dividers 


Equipment 

For  practice  in  reducing  and  enlarging  the  pupil  should  have 
several  maps  and  plans  of  various  sizes  available.  He  must  have 
an  engineer's  scale,  with  the  necessary  drawing  board,  T-square, 

26 


ENLARGING   AND   REDUCING    PLANS 

triangle,  pencil,  etc.  If  the  pantograph  method  is  to  be  illustrated 
it  will  be  necessary  of  course  to  have  a  pantograph;  and  a  set  of 
proportional  dividers  will  be  required  in  learning  method  5  above. 


Fig.  12.     Pantograph 


Practice 


The  student  should  redraw  several  maps  and  plans,  reducing 
some,  enlarging  others.  Plans  in  this  book  will  serve  admirably, 
as  many  of  them  will  have  to  be  redrawn  by  the  pupil  as  the  course 
proceeds. 

This  practice  need  not  be  unduly  protracted,  since  there  will  be 
many  occasions  for  the  further  use  of  the  methods  here  described, 
but  the  pupil  should  spend  enough  time  in  this  work  so  that  he 
can  use  several  different  methods  readily. 


27 


LESSON  7 

Paced  Survey 

HE  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  explain  the  usual 
methods  of  making  paced  surveys.  Such  surveys 
are  frequently  used  in  landscape  gardening.  It 
is  important  that  everyone  who  does  any  sort 
of  work  in  landscape  gardening,  even  the  pupil 
in  school  or  college,  should  be  familiar  with  the 
practical  methods  employed  and  should  have 
some  experience  in  making  surveys. 

Definition 

A  paced  survey  is  one  in  which  all,  or  most  of  the  distances 
are  measured  by  the  worker  pacing,  or  walking,  from  point  to 
point.  Sometimes  when  large  areas  are  to  be  mapped  as  in  military 
work,  distances  are  measured  by  counting  the  steps  taken  by  a 
horse,  or  by  observing  the  time  taken  by  a  horse  to  traverse  them. 

Discussion 

The  paced  survey  has  several  practical  advantages.  It  can  be 
made  quickly  by  one  man  working  alone  without  expensive  instru- 
ments. It  is  therefore  rapid  and  inexpensive.  Without  previous 
practice  the  average  man  will  work  to  about  10%  of  accuracy,  making 
the  distances  too  short  on  account  of  over-stepping.  With  practice 
it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  error  to  two  or  three  per  cent. 

Although  not  absolutely  accurate  as  to  distances  the  relation- 
ships of  parts  are  correct,  and  such  surveys  are  accurate  enough  for 
plans  to  accompany  general  directions  and  explanations  to  assist- 
ants and  clients,  for  rearrangement  plans  where  little  grading  is 
proposed,  for  approximate  location  of  details  for  the  guidance  of 

28 


PACED    SURVEY 


experienced  foremen,  for  making  planting  plans  and  for  records  of 
information  in  study  of  existing  designs.  They  are  not  accurate 
enough  for  figuring  amounts  in  grading. 

Equipment 

The  worker  should  be  equipped  with  a  compass  (see  Lesson 
8).  He  should  also  have  one  or  several  sheets  of  cross-section 
paper  mounted  on  a  drawing  board.  It  is  possible,  of  course,  to 
make  paced  surveys  while  recording  the  notes  on  any  stray  sheet  of 
paper,  but  the  cross-section  paper  will  help  greatly.  A  pair  of  tri- 
angles and  an  engineer's  scale  should  be  used. 

General  Directions 

Pace  Length:  Do  not  try  to  take  an  unnaturally  long  step,  it 
is  tiresome  and  cannot  be  continued  with  an  uniformity.  The 
ordinary  step  is  not  far  from  two  and  one-half  feet,  often  a  little 
more,  and  one  is  apt  to  lengthen  it  in  pacing  so  that  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  overstep.  For  areas  of  a  few  acres  the  best  plan  is  to 
take  the  natural  step  considering  it  two  and  one-half  feet  and  keeping 
count  in  feet  rather  than  number  of  steps.  Starting  with,  say,  the 
right  foot,  counting  five,  ten,  fifteen  feet,  etc.,  each  time  it  is  placed; 
distances  may  then  be  plotted  in  feet  with  the  engineer's  scale. 

When  considerable  areas  are  to  be  surveyed  so  that  long  dis- 
tances are  paced  and  the  accumulated  error  would  amount  to  con- 
siderable, more  correct  results  will  be  obtained  by  finding  the  true 
length  of  the  pace  by  counting  the  number  taken  in  a  measured 
distance  of  considerable  length.  This  is  the  method  used  in  military 
surveying.  A  table  of  corrections  for  various  slopes  may  be  worked 
out  and  applied  in  order  to  give  correct  horizontal  distances. 

Two  methods  are  in  common  use: 

1.  In  which  objects  are  located  from  base  hues  by  two  paced 
distances  usually  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

2.  In  which  objects  are  located  from  some  central  point,  the 

29 


TEXT    BOOK    OF    LANDSCAPE    GARDENING 

direction  being  read  by  a  compass  and  the  distance  paced.  The 
first  method  is  more  useful  for  areas  of  a  few  acres,  especially  if 
about  a  building. 

Method  I 

In  this  method  the  plan  should  be  plotted  on  a  piece  of  paper 
ruled  to  squares;  engineers  cross-section  paper  is  best.  It  is  ruled 
ten  spaces  to  the  inch  and  each  space  may  be  taken  as  a  foot,  or  as 
two  feet,  making  the  scale  of  the  plan  10'  or  20'  to  the  inch,  or  more 
if  desired.  The  sides  of  the  main  building  give  good  straight  lines, 
and  their  extensions  may  easily  be  located  as  they  cross  the  grounds. 
Usually  a  building  will  give  two  such  lines  in  each  direction  and 
sometimes  more.  When  there  is  no  building,  a  straight  fence  may 
be  used  as  a  base  line,  or  three  poles  may  be  set  up  in  line.  Three 
will  define  the  line  at  any  point  while  if  two  are  used  positions  on 
the  line  cannot  be  determined  between  them.  A  straight  line  on 
the  ground,  as  a  railroad-edge  or  ditch  will  do,  but  this  is  not  so 
good  as  something  which  stands  up  so  as  to  be  easily  seen. 

One  of  the  heavy  lines  on  the  cross-section  paper  should  be 
assumed  as  representing  the  base  line  on  the  ground,  or  two  at  right 
angles  should  be  taken  to  represent  the  best  defined  sides  of  a  build- 
ing. It  will  not  be  possible  to  locate  the  details  of  the  building  ex- 
actly by  pacing  and  if  special  accuracy  is  desired  for  these  measure- 
ments it  will  be  better  to  tape  them.  This  may  be  done  by  fastening 
the  zero  of  the  tape  at  one  corner  of  the  building  and  recording  the 
readings  at  each  side  of  windows,  doors,  etc.,  to  the  next  corner,  and 
similarly  along  the  other  sides.  With  this  information  the  building 
may  be  easily  plotted. 

Pacing  is  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  give  good  results  by  triangu- 
lar ties,  even  small  errors  in  measurement  will  throw  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  arcs  too  far  from  the  correct  position.  The  pacing 
should  be  on  90°  ties,  that  is  along  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  base 
lines.  A  point  should  be  found  in  the  base  line  where  a  line  at  90°  to 
it  will  pass  through  the  object  to  be  located.     When  the  distance  to 

30 


PACED     SURVEY 


the  object  is  short  such  a  point  may  be  found  by  estimation,  for 
greater  distances  stand  on  the  base  hne,  stretch  the  arms  along  it,  and 
(without  looking  at  the  object)  swing  the  arms  together,  if  they  do 
not  point  toward  the  object  move  along  the  base  line  and  try  again 
till  the  proper  place  is  found.  When  a  drawing  board  is  used  to 
hold  the  paper,  right  angles  may  be  found  by  sighting  along  its  edges 
or  a  right  angle  mirror  or  prism  may  be  used. 

Pacing  should  be  done  from  the  point  on  line  to  the  object,  as 
the  point  must  be  found  first  and  the  object  is  more  easily  seen  from 
a  distance. 

Do  not  locate  an  object  by  pacing  from  one  base  line  along 
another  to  the  right  angle  point,  as  this  would  include  any  error 
made  in  the  location  of  the  right  angle  point.  Such  an  error  of  lo- 
cation would  have  little  effect  on  a  distance  at  right  angles  to  the 
base  line. 

Sometimes  objects  intervene  so  that  it  is  not  possible  to  pace 
along  a  desired  line;  it  is  then  often  possible  with  a  little  care  to 
offset  and  pace  along  a  parallel  line. 

Gain  general  control  of  the  problem  first,  —  that  is,  locate 
boundaries,  fences,  important  roads  and  the  larger  objects  as  other 
buildings,  etc.,  and  then  fill  in  the  single  trees,  walks,  shrub  beds  and 
other  details. 

Locate  everything  possible  from  the  original  base  lines.  When 
objects  are  to  be  located  from  other  objects  be  sure  that  the  first 
locations  are  correct. 

When  locating  a  line  at  an  angle  to  the  base  line  tie  in  its  ends, 
or  if  more  convenient  some  point  in  the  prolongation  of  the  line. 
A  row  of  trees  may  be  plotted  by  locating  the  end  ones  and  pacing 
along  the  Hne  to  locate  intervening  ones. 

Locate  curves  by  right  angle  ties  from  the  base  lines  to  as 
many  points  as  desired.  Avoid  unnecessary  walking.  Often  in 
pacing  a  distance  intermediate  objects,  as  road  edges,  etc.  will  be 
passed;  if  so,  make  notes  of  the  distances  to  such  objects  and  later 
plot  them. 

31 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE    GARDENING 

Check  your  work  occasionally  by  general  inspection  of  the  plan 
and  correct  any  mistakes. 

In  plotting  it  will  be  less  confusing  to  orient  the  plan  so  that 
objects  will  be  in  their  proper  relations. 


S/e/aM^a/^  -       ^aw    S^rvfff- 


Fig.  13.     Plan  Drawn  prom  Paced  Survey 

Omit  foliage  lines  till  all  location  is  done  and  then  sketch  them 
by  inspection  in  relation  to  various  objects. 

An  approximate  north  point  should  be  shown.  It  may  be 
determined  approximately  by  holding  a  watch  flat  in  the  hand  with 
its  hour  hand  directed  toward  the  sun  (that  is  with  its  shadow  under 
it);  then  half  way  between  the  hour  hand  and  twelve  will  be  the 
north  and  south  line. 


32 


PACED     SURVEY 


Method  II 

In  the  second  method,  where  a  compass  is  used,  select  some 
central  important  object  such  as  a  tree  or  building  corner,  and  stand- 
ing at  it,  take  the  bearings  of  a  considerable  number  of  other  ob- 
jects. Then  pace  from  the  central  station  out  to  an  object  and 
crossing  over  to  some  other  object  pace  back  to  the  central  station 
so  as  to  save  walking.  Intermediate  objects  along  a  paced  line 
should  be  noted.  The  notes  of  such  a  survey  may  be  recorded 
either  in  tabular  form  in  a  notebook  with  columns  showing  the 
station,  direction,  distance  and  object,  or  in  a  diagrammatic  form 
with  the  objects  roughly  sketched  in  relation  and  the  direction  and 
distance  shown  along  lines  from  the  central  station.  Additional 
stations  may  be  located  from  the  first  one  and  the  work  carried  along 
as  required.  Such  a  survey  must  be  plotted  up  by  means  of  a 
protractor.  It  is  much  better  to  use  a  compass  and  a  protractor 
graduated  in  azimuth  to  360°  rather  than  to  quadrants.  This 
method  requires  less  time  in  the  field  and  more  in  the  office  than 
does  the  previous  one.  It  also  requires  the  use  of  compass  and 
protractor.  The  results  are  perhaps  not  quite  so  accurate,  as  it  is 
not  possible  to  read  courses  very  accurately  with  a  hand  compass. 

Practice 

The  student  must  have  actual  practice  in  making  paced  sur- 
veys. Indeed  he  must  have  extended  and  frequent  practice.  Speed 
and  accuracy  are  gained  by  such  practice,  the  improvement  in 
accuracy  being  especially  important. 

Therefore  let  the  student  undertake  surveys  of  this  kind  as 
often  as  possible.  It  will  be  better  naturally  to  begin  with  simple 
problems  where  only  a  few  details  are  to  be  located  and  proceed  to 
the  study  of  larger  areas  and  rougher  land  with  more  intricate  de- 
tails. It  will  be  better  also  to  select  areas  which  have  some  in- 
trinsic interest  or  those  for  which  the  finished  maps  may  be  of  some 
further  use,  either  in  the  present  course  of  landscape  gardening 
studies  or  for  other  business. 

33 


LESSON   8 

Use  of  Compass 

N  the  simplest  paced  surveys  no  compass  is  used, 
the  cardinal  directions  being  known  with  suffi- 
cient exactness.  However,  as  paced  or  taped 
surveys  become  more  elaborate  the  point  is  soon 
reached  where  directions  have  to  be  determined 
more  carefully  and  horizontal  angles  read.  The 
use  of  a  hand  compass  is  then  the  next   step. 

The  present  lesson  takes  up  the  construction  and  use  of  the  compass 

in  its  simpler  forms. 

Compass  Construction 

The  essential  part  of  a  compass  is  a  magnetized  needle  balanced 
on  a  vertical  pivot.  This  needle  when  given  its  freedom  will  swing 
horizontally  till  one  end  points  toward  the  magnetic  but  not  the 
true  north. 

The  ends  of  the  needle  are  marked  in  some  way  to  distinguish 
them;  sometimes  one  end,  — usually  the  north,  — is  colored  blue, 
sometimes  a  short  transverse  bar  is  placed  in  the  north  end,  some- 
times the  south  end  has  a  small  coil  of  wire  wound  around  it  to 
balance  the  dip  of  the  needle.  Usually  the  needle  is  deeper  than 
wide  so  as  to  balance  better. 

The  needle  swings  within  or  over  a  circular  dial  which  is  divided 
into  360  degrees.  The  unit  of  graduation  is  usually  one  degree, 
sometimes  one-half  degree  or  on  small  instruments  two  or  five  de- 
grees. 

The  needle  oscillates  a  good  deal  and  comes  to  rest  slowly. 
In  order  to  check  its  motion  and  bring  it  to  rest  more  quickly  a 
small  clamp  is  usually  provided  by  which  the  needle  may  be  raised 

34 


USE     OF     COMPASS 


from  its  pivot  and  clamped  against  the  cover  glass.  This  clamp  is 
usually  so  arranged  as  to  be  brought  into  action  as  the  case  is  closed 
and  so  lift  the  needle  from  its  pivot  when  the  instrument  is  not  in 
use,  thus  saving  the  pivot  from  unnecessary  wear  and  keeping  the 
needle  in  better  condition. 

Hand  compasses  are  made  in  a  variety  of  forms  and  sizes. 
The  larger  ones  with  longer  needles  are  more  carefully  made  and 
much  better.     There  are  two  general  kinds: 

1.  The  Plain,  Box  or  Pocket  Compass  in  which  the  needle  moves 
within  or  above  a  fixed  dial  all  parts  of  which  are  open  to  view. 
Such  instruments  are  often  of  watch  form  and  not  necessarily 
shaped  like  a  box.  They  often  have  folding  sight  vanes  on  the 
N.-S.  line;  that  at  the  south  end  with  a  narrow  vertical  slit;  that 
at  the  north  end  with  a  vertical  hair,  thread  or  wire. 


Fig.  14.     Types  of  Compasses — Box  Compass;    Prismatic  Compass;    Brunton's 
Pocket  Transit 


2.  The  Prismatic  Compass  in  which  the  dial  is  attached  to  and 
floats  with  the  needle  and  often  only  a  small  part  of  it  is  exposed  to 
view.  There  are  usually  sight  vanes,  and  on  the  south  one  there 
is  a  prism  so  placed  as  to  refract  the  dial  to  the  eye  and  make  it 
possible  to  sight  the  direction  and  read  the  dial  at  the  same  time. 
In  another  form  a  mirror  in  the  cover  serves  the  purpose  of  the 
prism. 

35 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE      GARDENING 

There  are  several  methods  of  numbering  the  graduations  of 
the  dial.     The  two  methods  most  often  used  are: 

1.  Quadrant  Graduation  with  a  zero  at  both  the  north  and 
south,  the  numbering  increasing  in  each  direction  up  to  90  degrees 
at  both  east  and  west.  Quadrant  courses  are  recorded  by  their 
relation  to  the  N.-S.  line  as  N.  10°  E.  or  S.  77°  W.  etc. 

This  is  the  usual  form  of  graduation  of  the  box  compass  and  is 
the  one  most  often  used  by  land  surveyors.  It  is  liable  to  give  rise 
to  confusion  and  error  as  there  are  four  different  courses  for  every 
degree  number  as  N.  10°  E.,  N.  10°  W.,  S.  10°  E.,  S.  10°  W.,  two  of 
the  courses  being  the  reverse  directions  of  the  other  two. 

2.  Azimuth  Graduations:  In  this  form  there  is  but  one  zero 
which  is  at  the  north,  the  degrees  being  numbered  continuously  to 
the  right  (clockwise)  through  E.,  S.  and  W.  to  360°  which  coin- 
cides with  zero  at  the  north. 

There  is  thus  but  one  course  for  any  degree  number  and  there- 
fore less  chance  for  confusion  in  reading  or  recording.  This  is  the 
usual  graduation  of  the  prismatic  compass. 

Important  Note:  The  actual  numbering  on  a  floating  dial 
usually  starts  with  zero  at  the  south  and  runs  clockwise  but  as  the 
reading  is  always  made  at  the  rear  end  of  the  sighted  line  in  the 
prismatic  compass  this  arrangement  of  the  numbering  gives  correct 
readings  based  on  zero  at  the  north. 

It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  with  the  floating  dial  we  read 
the  direction  on  the  line  of  the  course  while  with  a  fixed  dial  we  read 
the  direction  not  on  the  line  of  the  course  but  at  the  N.  end  of  the 
needle. 

The  course  is  the  line  through  the  sight  vanes,  or  if  there  are 
no  vanes  it  is  along  the  N.-S.  line  of  the  dial  which  line  is  brought 
to  bear  on  the  object  whose  direction  is  sought. 

When  the  dial  floats  it  brings  the  reading  to  the  sighted  line. 
When  the  dial  is  fixed  the  instrument  revolves  about  the  needle  which 
maintains  a  constant  N.-S.  position  and  the  course  is  shown  by  the 
angular  distance  between  it  and  the  N.-S.  line  of  the  dial  as  read 

36 


USE     OF     COMPASS 


at  the  end  of  the  needle.  As  the  course  moves  to  the  east  the  needle 
appears  to  have  moved  to  the  west,  and  vice  versa;  for  this  reason 
E.  and  W.  are  often  reversed  in  position  so  as  to  make  correct 
reading  easier. 

Methods  of  Use 

In  use  the  compass 
should  be  held  in  an 
approximately  horizontal 
position  and  as  steadily 
as  possible.  It  is  easier 
to  do  this  if  the  arms  from 
shoulder  to  elbow  are 
pressed  against  the  body 
and  any  rotation  of  the 
compass  done  by  twisting 
the  body  rather  than  by  a 
motion  of  the  wrists. 

Some  compasses  have 
two  small  level  vials  at- 
tached at  right  angles  so 
as  to  show  when  the  in- 
strument is  level ;  in  others 
the  observer  must  judge 
by  the  position  or  motion 
of  the  needle  or  of  the 
sight  vanes  whether  or 
not  the  instrument  is  near- 
ly level. 

The    compass    needle 
is  easily  affected  by  iron  or  steel,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
use  it  near  any  such  metal.     Even  for  approximate  hand  work  it 
should  not  be  used  within  8  or  10  feet  of  a  wire  fence  or  telephone 
line  or  20  or  25  feet  of  a  railroad,  while  for  careful  instrument  work 

37 


Fig.  15.     Using  the  Pocket  Transit 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

it  should  be  at  least  75  feet  from  a  railroad.  A  large  pocket  knife 
will  affect  the  needle  if  within  a  foot  or  so  of  it. 

When  possible  the  instrument  may  be  rested  on  the  top  of  a 
post  or  stick  or  even  on  the  ground. 

If  the  instrument  has  sight  vanes  the  N.-S.  line  should  be 
brought  to  bear  on  the  object  whose  direction  is  desired  by  holding 
the  instrument  nearly  up  to  the  level  of  the  eye  and  sighting  through 
the  vanes.  When  the  needle  has  come  to  rest  it  should  be  care- 
fully clamped  and  the  direction  read.  The  average  of  two  or  three 
readings  will  be  more  accurate  than  a  single  one. 

If  there  are  no  sight  vanes  the  instrument  must  be  held  at  a 
lower  position  and  the  N.-S.  line  directed  by  estimation  toward  the 
object  sought.  When  the  needle  has  come  to  rest  its  direction  may 
be  read  or  the  average  of  the  swing  may  be  taken  before  it  comes  to 
rest.  It  may  be  helpful  in  directing  the  N.-S.  line  to  hold  the  in- 
strument so  that  the  thumbs  meet  at  S.  and  the  first  fmgers  at  N. 
or  to  lay  a  pencil  across  over  the  N.-S.  line. 

The  prismatic  compass  should  be  held  close  to  the  eye  and  the 
hands  pressed  against  the  face  to  steady  it.  Occasional  pressure  on 
the  stop  will  bring  the  needle  to  rest  more  quickly  or  the  average 
swing  may  be  taken  rather  than  to  wait  for  the  needle  to  come  to 
complete  rest. 

In  using  the  prismatic  compass  the  reading  is  taken  at  a  fixed 
point  on  the  compass  box  on  the  line  of  sight  near  the  eye. 

In  using  the  box  or  pocket  compass  keep  the  S.  point  of  the  dial 
toward  you  and  always  read  the  N.  end  of  the  needle,  recording 
first  S.  or  N.  (whichever  is  nearest  the  N.  end  of  the  needle)  then 
the  degrees  indicated,  then  if  E.  and  W.  are  printed  in  reversed 
positions  record  whichever  is  nearest  the  N.  end  of  the  needle.  If 
however  they  are  printed  in  correct  positions  record  the  opposite. 

When  the  dial  of  a  box  compass  is  graduated  in  azimuth  clock- 
wise from  N.  read  the  N.  end  of  the  needle  and  plot  counter-clock- 
wise. 


38 


USE      OF     COMPASS 


Records 

A  record  of  compass  bearings  should  show  the  following  data, 
clearly  arranged  in  compact  columns: 


Starting  point 

Course 

Distance 

Object  at  end 
of  course 

N.  E.  Cor.  Wilder 

N.  10° 
166° 

80 
100 

12"  maple  Tree 
N.  W.  cor.  French 

The  starting  point  where  the  observations  are  made  may  be 
the  same  for  several  records. 

The  course  should  show  first  the  primary  cardinal  point  N.  or 
S.  then  the  degree,  then  the  secondary  cardinal  point,  E.  or  W.  or 
simply  the  degree  if  the  reading  is  made  in  azimuth. 

The  distance  in  some  unit,  feet  or  paces  etc.,  when  possible. 
When  an  object  is  located  by  two  courses  from  two  known  points 
the  distance  is  not  necessary. 

Object  at  end  of  course  —  as  definite  a  description  as  necessary. 

If  another  person  is  to  plot  the  notes  a  statement  should  be 
recorded  as  to  what  form  of  an  instrument  was  used  and  how  it  was 
graduated. 

Practice 

It  is  essential  that  the  student  have  considerable  practice  in 
handling  the  compass.  In  this  work  practice  will  give  a  large  in- 
crease in  accuracy. 

If  the  student  can  have  the  use  of  several  compasses  of  different 
types  it  will  be  desirable  to  try  them  all.  There  are  important  dif- 
ferences among  the  compasses  in  regular  use,  and  each  worker  usually 
develops  a  strong  preference  for  some  particular  type  of  instrument. 
Each  type  of  compass,  however,  has  its  uses  and  advantages,  and 
the  good  workman  will  know  them  all. 

39 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

For  practice  purposes  it  will  be  found  effective  to  have  a  number 
of  lines  laid  out,  their  true  compass  bearings  being  known  to  the 
teacher  but  not  to  the  pupils.  The  pupils  should  then  read  these 
bearings  repeatedly  and  with  all  the  different  makes  of  compasses 
available.  After  thirty  or  forty  readings,  which  should  be  recorded, 
the  pupil  will  see  how  accurate  is  his  work.  He  should  observe 
his  average  error  and  his  limit  of  error.  After  one  day  of  attentive 
practice  the  student,  using  any  fairly  good  instrument,  should  re- 
duce his  average  error  to  2°  and  his  extreme  error  to  5°. 


40 


LESSON  9 

Compass  Survey 

HE  compass  survey  may  be  regarded  as  an  im- 
provement upon  the  simple  paced  survey,  though 
the  compass  is  frequently  used  in  making  paced 
surveys.  In  short  there  are  all  degrees  of  ac- 
curacy to  be  attained  in  surveying  depending  on 
the  kind  of  instruments  used,  the  time  and  at- 
tention given  to  the  work  and  the  skill  of  the 
surveyor.  The  student  should  now  endeavor  to  improve  his  own 
work  and  to  gain  greater  accuracy  through  the  use  of  the  hand 
compass  for  determining  directions  and  for  measuring  horizontal 
angles. 

Measuring  Distances 

In  previous  exercises  we  have  assumed  that  distances  would 
be  measured  by  pacing.  Much  greater  accuracy  can  be  attained 
by  measuring  with  a  surveyor's  chain  or  an  engineer's  steel  tape. 
The  latter  is  the  best  measuring  instrument  for  all  practical  purposes. 
Some  experience  in  handling  the  engineer's  tape  will  be  found  profit- 
able. 

"Chain  tapes"  are  thin  and  fairly  broad  steel  ribbons  graduated 
in  feet  and  hundredths  throughout. 

Heavy  or  "Hoop  Skirt"  tapes  are  of  thicker  and  usually  nar- 
rower steel  ribbon  graduated  to  feet,  and  usually  the  end  feet  are 
graduated  to  tenths. 

Be  sure  you  know  where  the  zero  point  and  the  total  length 
point  are  on  the  tape.  If  you  don't  know  find  out  by  comparing  the 
ends  with  some  other  part  of  the  tape.     Some  tapes  have  the  zero 

41 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

at  the  inside  of  the  ring,  some  at  the  end  of  the  ribbon  and  some  at  a 
distance  from  the  end. 

In  field  work  it  is  better  to  have  the  zero  end  at  rear  so  as  to 
measure  from  it  each  time.     In  holding  the  zero  end  don't  allow 


Fig.  16.     Using  the  Prism.\tic  Compass 

strain  to  come  on  the  stake  or  pin.  Tie  a  strong  string  or  leather 
thong  into  the  ring  when  more  convenient.  In  making  measure- 
ments always  hold  tape  level.  Hold  tape  in  left  hand  drawing 
around  little  finger.  Pull  tight,  as  though  you  meant  business; 
the  shortest  measure  is  the  correct  one. 

Show  in  your  notes  the  direction  in  which  the  measurement 
was  made,  as  from  A  to  B.     Record  all  the  measurements  taken 

42 


COMPASS    SUR VEY 


and  sum  them  up  to  show  the  total  distance  between  the  points 
thus :  — 

Distance  from  A  to  B      36 .  22 
44.51 

77.08  80.73  wire  fence 

24.40 


182.21 


Complete  notes  for  the  survey  will  then  take  the  following 
form: 

Survey  of  Farm  Yard 
May  4,  1922  —  T.  C.  Jones 


Station 

Course 

Distance  feet 

Description 

S.  E.  Cor.  Barn 

N.  10°  E. 

80 

12"  maple 

S.  14"  W. 

100 

N.  E.  Cor.  Shed 

Method  of  Graphic  Record 

Another  method  of  recording  notes  for  simple  surveys,  and  a 
very  excellent  one  within  limits,  is  to  make  a  graphic  sketch  of  the 
area  under  survey,  and  then  to  measure  distances  and  angles  and 
determine  compass  bearings  on  main  lines.  For  example  the  ac- 
companying sketch,  Figure  17,  is  made  by  inspection  on  the  ground. 
After  the  sketch  is  made  the  distances  are  measured  and  entered  as 
shown.  Compass  bearings  are  also  read  and  entered.  This  sketch 
is  then  taken  to  the  drafting  room  and  correctly  plotted  to  the 
desired  scale. 

43 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  17.    Survey  as  Sketched  in  the  Field 

Problems 

The  student  should  now  make  several  surveys  and  finish  the 
maps  from  his  notes.  He  should  practice  various  methods  of  sur- 
veying and  of  keeping  records.  Definite  problems  should  be  under- 
taken, such  as  the  following: 

1.  Make  a  compass  and  pace  survey  of  the  nearest  school 

grounds,  preparing  a  finished  map  in  ink. 

2.  Make  a  compass  and  tape-line  survey  of  the  nearest  railroad 

station  grounds  and  prepare  map. 

3.  Make  paced  survey  without  compass  of  some  neighboring 

house  and  lot.     The  pupil's  own  home  grounds  will  offer 
a  desirable  problem. 


44 


LESSON   10 

Leveling 

HE  student  should  now  learn  the  simpler  methods 
of  leveling,  and  the  present  exercise  is  intro- 
duced for  this  purpose. 

Definitions 

A  level  line  is  a  line  parallel  to  the  surface  of 
a  smooth  body  of  water,  i.e.,  parallel  to  the  gen- 
eral surface  of  the  earth.     It  is  therefore  a  curved  line. 

A  horizontal  line  is  a  line  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  horizon; 
or  it  is  a  straight  line  tangent  to  a  level  line  at  any  point,  that  is  at 
right  angles  to  a  vertical  line. 

A  level  is  an  instrument,  with  or  without  a  telescope,  fixing  a 
line  of  sight  (line  of  collimation)  by  means  of  which  differences  of 
elevation  may  be  determined.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  line 
run  by  a  level  is  not  level  but  horizontal. 

Equipment 

For  the  business  now  in  hand  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  use 
any  elaborate  engineering  instruments.  The  farm  or  drainage  level 
is  a  very  simple  instrument,  consisting  of  a  cheap  telescope  (some- 
times a  tube  with  glass  windows  and  no  lenses)  mounted  on  a  light 
tripod  or  set  up  on  a  jacob-staff.     (See  Figure  18.) 

A  hand  level  is  a  tube,  with  or  without  lenses,  in  which 
is  mounted  a  horizontal  hair,  thus  fixing  a  line  of  sight.  The  in- 
strument is  held  in  the  hand  while  making  observations. 

For  all  operations  which  give  any  reasonable  degree  of  exact- 
ness it  is  necessary  to  have  also  a  leveling-rod,  which  is  essentially 
a  straight  wooden  rod  usually  marked  conspicuously  in  feet,  tenths 

45 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

and  hundredths.     It  is  usually  desirable  further  to  have  a  meas- 
uring tape  or  chain. 


I'lG.  IS.     Using  the  Farm  Level 


Operation 

The  operation  of  leveling  consists  primarily  in  determining 
the  difference  in  elevation  between  two  given  points.  The  instru- 
ment is  set  up  at  some  third  point  from  which  the  two  points  A  and 
X  to  be  compared  are  visible.  When  the  level  tube  has  been  brought 
to  a  horizontal  position,  the  leveling-rod  is  placed  with  its  zero  mark 
upon  the  first  point,  A,  the  elevation  of  which  is  known,  and  a  read- 
ing is  made.  This  is  called  a  back  sight,  and  the  resulting  figures 
tell  the  height  of  the  telescope  tube  (line  of  collimation)  above  the 
point  A.     If  this  point  A  is  one  whose  elevation  has  been  deter- 

46 


LE VELING 


mined  with  some  care  with  a  view  to  its  general  use  in  this  survey, 
it  is  called  a  bench-mark. 

The  instrument  is  now  directed  toward  the  second  point,  X, 
care  being  taken  to  make  sure  that  the  instrument  tube  remains 
in  exactly  the  same  horizontal 


plane.  The  leveling-rod  is  now 
set  up  with  its  zero  mark  on 
the  point  X  and  the  rod  is  read 
again.  This  reading  shows  the 
height  of  the  telescope  tube 
above  X;  but  the  desired  in- 
formation is  secured  by  sub- 
tracting the  second  reading  from 
the  first,  the  difference  thus 
obtained  being  the  difference  of 
elevation  between  A  and  X. 

Methods  of  Leveling 

Differential  leveling  con- 
sists in  finding  the  difference 
of  elevation  between  two  or 
more  points  in  the  manner 
already  explained. 

Profile  leveling  consists  in 
taking  the  elevations  of  a  series 
of  points  along  a  given  line. 
As  a  matter  of  convenience 
only  these   readings   are  made 

at  regular  intervals,  as  10,  50  or  100  feet.  The  information  thus 
secured  is  best  exhibited  when  plotted  out  as  a  profile.  One  may 
thus  construct  a  profile  which  shows  the  fall  of  a  stream  or  the 
grades,  up  and  down,  of  a  road.     See  Figure  20. 

Gross-section  leveling  consists  in  running  several  profile  levels 

47 


Fig.  19.     Using  the  Hand  Level 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

at  regular  intervals  and  in  two  directions,  one  series  at  right  angles 
to  the  other.  In  practice  the  lines  are  leveled  out  in  one  direction 
only.  When  plotted  they  are  shown  by  a  map  cut  into  squares 
with  elevations  shown  in  figures  at  each  intersection,  as  in  Figure 
21. 

Contour  leveling  consists  in  surveying  contours  upon  the  land 
and  mapping  them  on  paper.  (For  definition  of  contour  see  page 
51.)  This  is  a  useful  method  but  somewhat  more  complicated. 
For  lack  of  space  it  will  not  be  explained  here;  but  the  teacher  is 
urged  to  give  the  pupil  instruction  in  contour  leveling  if  time  and 
equipment  will  permit,  and  especially  if  plane-table  practice  can 
be  introduced. 

Problems 

The  student  should  first  become  acquainted  with  the  instru- 
ments to  be  used.  To  this  end  he  should  take  up  several  simple 
problems  in  differential  leveling.  He  should  work  in  this  way  until 
he  is  sure  that  he  can  determine  the  difference  of  level  between  two 
ipoints  with  reasonable  speed  and  accuracy. 

Profile  leveling  should  then  be  practiced.  Take  a  section  of 
road,  or  path,  not  less  than  one-quarter  nor  more  than  one-half 
mile  in  length.  Adopt  some  point  as  a  bench-mark,  preferably  one 
the  elevation  of  which  is  already  known.  Set  up  the  level  and 
proceed  as  in  profile  leveling.  Measure  from  the  point  of  beginning 
50  feet  along  the  center  of  the  road  and  determine  the  elevation 
of  this  second  point  B.  Measure  another  50  feet  and  find  the  ele- 
vation of  C.  Whenever  a  point  is  reached  where  the  leveling-rod 
cannot  be  seen  from  the  station  where  the  instrument  is  standing, 
or  when  the  elevation  is  so  high  or  so  low  that  it  cannot  be  read  on 
the  leveling-rod,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  up  a  new  station  with 
the  instrument.  The  last  point  for  which  the  elevation  has  been 
determined  is  then  adopted  as  a  turning-point.  When  the  in- 
strument has  been  reset  the  first  operation  will  be  to  level  back  upon 
this  turning-point,  and,  using  this  turning-point  as  a  new  bench- 

48 


LE VELING 


mark,  compute  the  elevation  of  further  points  with  reference  to  this 
known  elevation. 

The  information  gained  in  this  survey  should  be  instantly 
recorded  in  a  note-book.  From  this  record  a  profile  should  be 
plotted  upon  suitable  paper  upon  a  drawing  board. 


450 


itO 


410 


400 


SO 


J5I5TA1NGE       IN       FEET 
dOO      150     2.00     '2-50     300     350     '^OQ     ASO    300      550     (iOO 


^m 


Fig.  20.     Profile  of  a  Road  Secured  by  Leveling 


The  student  should  next  undertake  one  or  two  simple  problems 
in  cross-section  surveying.  A  tract  of  land  of  three  to  ten  acres, 
not  too  rough  and  not  too  level  and  not  too  much  obstructed  with 
trees  or  buildings,  should  be  chosen.  Along  one  side  a  base  line 
should  be  laid  off,  pegs  being  set  at  intervals  of  50  feet.  The  profile 
of  this  line  should  then  be  determined  with  care.  Lines  perpen- 
dicular to  this  base  should  next  be  laid  off  from  the  points  marked 
by  pegs  and  running  across  the  area  under  survey.  Then  a  profile 
survey  will  be  made  on  each  of  these  perpendicular  lines,  beginning 
at  the  peg  and  taking  elevation  each  50  feet.  The  observations 
will  all  be  recorded  at  once  in  the  field  book. 

The  elevations  thus  determined  should  now  be  shown  in  figures 
on  a  map  of  squares  as  in  Figure  21. 

The  interpolation  of  contours  will  be  taken  up  in  the  next 
lesson. 


49 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Readings 

The  student  may  consult  any  good  manual  of  surveying,  such 
as  Pence  and  Ketchum,  "Manual  of  Field  and  Office  Methods  for 
the  Use  of  Students  in  Surveying,"  New  York,  1902. 


50 


LESSON    11 

Mapping  Contours 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  teach  the  mean- 
ing and  use  of  contour  Hues  on  maps.  The 
pupil  must  be  able  to  read  contours  at  a  glance, 
and  he  should  be  able  to  draw  them  correctly 
upon  his  own  maps. 

Definition 

A  contour  is  a  line  upon  a  plan  or  map  connecting  points  of 
equal  elevation.  The  shore  line  of  a  body  of  standing  water  is  a 
true  contour. 

Since  every  part  of  a  contour  line  is  of  the  same  elevation  the 
ground  on  one  side  of  a  contour  is  always  higher  and  on  the  other 
side  always  lower  than  the  contour.  All  the  elevations  between 
any  two  contours  must  be  higher  than  one  and  lower  than  the  other. 

Contours  are  not  necessarily  parallel,  as  the  ground  surface  is 
very  irregular.  On  steep  slopes  they  are  near  together,  on  nearly 
level  land  they  are  far  apart  and  often  vary  greatly  in  direction. 

A  contour  can  never  cross  the  shore  of  a  body  of  standing  water. 
A  contour  may  cross  the  shore  of  running  water  but  it  can  cross  the 
same  shore  once  only  and  will  then  appear  on  the  farther  shore  at 
a  point  nearly  opposite. 

Contour  lines  are  rarely  made  up  of  straight  portions  joined  by 
relatively  sharp  angles :  they  are  usually  of  a  series  of  tangent  curves, 
especially  in  cleared  and  cultivated  land.  At  the  abrupt  edges  of 
artificial  cuts  or  fills  or  of  naturally  eroded  banks  they  do  have  rather 
sharp  angles. 

Contours  cannot  cross  each  other,  except  in  the  very  unusual 

51 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

condition  of  an  overhanging  surface,  in  which  case  they  always 
cross  each  other  twice. 

A  contour  never  ends,  but  we  frequently  show  ends  — 

1.  At  the  margins  of  the  map  —  an   arbitrary  limit   beyond 

which  no  data  are  shown. 

2.  At  a  building,  wall,  or  other  vertical  surface  —  here  one  or 

more  contours  continue  in  the  vertical  surface  but  can- 
not well  be  shown. 

3.  At  the  limits  of  a  ledge,  stone  pile  or  other  surface  so  rough 

that  it  is  difficult  to  locate  the  contour  correctly  on  it. 

4.  At  a  stream  shore,  where  we  have  no  data  to  show  its  lo- 

cation correctly  under  the  water. 

Plotting  Level  Notes 

Whenever  a  series  of  levels  has  been  taken  either  with  the  transit, 
the  plane-table  or  any  kind  of  a  leveling  instrument,  they  should 
be  recorded  on  the  plan  in  such  a  way  that  the  decimal  point  will 
occupy  the  exact  position  where  the  level  was  taken. 

When  the  survey  has  been  made  by  the  cross-section  method 
the  paper  on  which  the  plan  is  to  be  plotted  should  be  ruled  with 
two  series  of  fine  sharp  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  properly 
spaced  at  the  scale  of  the  plan  to  represent  the  cross-section  lines 
of  the  survey.  These  lines  should  be  lettered  and  numbered  as  the 
survey  lines  were  lettered  and  numbered  in  the  field.  The  levels 
should  then  be  entered  diagonally  across  the  intersections  of  the 
lines,  with  the  decimal  point  just  where  the  fines  cross. 

In  working  out  the  positions  of  the  contours  on  any  plan  we 

must  base  our  work  on  the  supposition  that  the  surface  of  the  ground 

is  practically  straight  —  that  is  on  an  even  slope  —  between  any 

two  adjacent  levels.     Therefore  in  taking  the  levels  we  must  be 

sure  to  take  them  not  only  at  the  cross-section  stakes,  but  also 

wherever  there  is  a  change  in  the  slope  of  the  surface,  so  that  our 

supposition  that  the  surface  is  on  an  even  slope  between  the  levels 

will  be  approximately  correct. 

52 


MAPPING    CONTOURS 


The  positions  of  the  contours  are  determined  by  proportion 
between  any  two  adjacent  levels,  thus  the  80  contour  would  pass 
half  way  between  elevations  79.5  and  80.5  or  it  would  pass  through 


Fig.  21.    Contours  Interpolated  on  Cross-Section  Survey 


a  point  two-fifths  of  the  way  from  79.6  to  80.6.  There  would  be 
three  (one-foot)  contours  between  24.5  and  27.8  and  five  between 
65.2  and  70.7. 

All  the  contours  passing  between  any  two  levels  should  be  lo- 
cated at  one  operation  rather  than  to  follow  out  each  contour  separ- 
ately. In  interpolating  on  a  cross-section  survey  it  is  well  to  fol- 
low along  a  row  of  squares  rather  than  to  work  without  any  definite 
order. 

Frequently  two-foot  contours  only  are  interpolated,  in  which 
case  they  should  always  be  the  even  contours  as  70,  72,  74,  etc. 
On  small  scale  plans  sometimes  the  contour  interval  is  five  or  ten 
feet  as  70,  75,  80,  85  or  70,  80,  90,  etc.  In  any  case  interpolating  is 
done  in  the  same  manner. 

53 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Equipment 

For  practice  in  reading  contours  any  contour  map  may  be 
used.  The  sheets  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  are  es- 
pecially interesting.  The  pupil  should  go  over  such  maps  until  the 
form  of  the  land  presents  itself  to  his  mind  quickly  and  clearly  as 
soon  as  he  sees  a  set  of  contour  lines,  just  as  ideas  come  readily  from 
reading  a  printed  page. 

For  practice  in  drawing  contours  the  pupil  will  require  the 
usual  drawing  equipment,  viz.,  drawing  board,  T-square,  triangles, 
scales  and  pencils.  He  should  also  have  a  book  of  level  notes, 
preferably  of  his  own  taking. 

Exercises 

Reading  exercises  may  be  given  at  first,  but  these  should  be 
readily  understood  by  the  pupil.  At  any  rate  the  reading  of  con- 
tours will  be  more  easily  grasped  after  the  pupil  has  had  some  drill 
in  drawing  them. 

Accordingly  several  exercises  should  be  assigned  in  drawing 
contours  on  maps  of  various  scales  and  kinds. 


54 


LESSON    12 

Entrance  Road 

HIS  presents  a  lesson  in  drawing  and  an  excellent 
solution  of  a  typical  problem  in  design  frequently 
encountered  in  landscape  gardening. 

Description 

The  design  here  given  is  copied,  with  very 
slight  changes,  from  Edourd  Andre's  "L'Art  des 
Jardins,"  a  famous  French  work  of  the  past  generation.  It  represents 
the  main  entrance  to  a  private  estate  of  considerable  importance. 
The  building  shown  is  a  "gate  lodge,"  which  in  its  original  form 
was  intended  to  house  a  guard.  There  were  iron  gates  in  the 
gateway  and  no  one  could  be  admitted  to  the  grounds  without 
the  guard  opened  the  bars.  Such  pretensions  are  not  popular  in 
America  today.  On  a  few  estates  one  will  still  find  a  cottage 
marking  the  main  entrance.  It  is  usually  occupied  by  a  gardener 
or  other  employee.  Even  this  much  is  done  only  on  grounds 
owned  by  wealthy  families  more  or  less  Europeanized.  It  would 
be  impossible  to  imagine  any  American  farmer  closing  the  front 
gates  on  his  farm  and  keeping  a  hired  man  to  guard  the  entrance, 
admitting  favorite  neighbors  and  keeping  out  others. 

It  seems  worth  while  thus  to  point  out  the  facts  that  European 
customs  are  different  from  those  of  America,  that  social  customs 
have  a  very  direct  influence  on  landscape  gardening  and  that  there- 
fore American  landscape  gardening  is  different  from  that  of  Europe. 

In  this  plan  the  gate  lodge  is  surrounded  by  a  small  court-yard, 
which  yard  is  walled  in.  There  is  a  wall  along  the  front  of  the 
estate.     Masses  of  shrubs  and  deciduous  trees  mark  the  entrance  and 

55 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

conceal  the  interior  of  the  estate.     Back  of  the  deciduous  trees  are 
five  evergreen  trees. 

Observe  that  the  main  road  is  so  designed  that  it  cannot  be 
confused  with  the  secondary  or  service  road.     One  sometimes  sees 


O      /p     ^^c?    v?j?     4jg    s^ 
/fat- 


Fig.  22.    Entrance  to  a  Private  Estate 


signs  set  up  at  road  junctions  reading  "This  way  to  the  Main  Build- 
ing." Such  placards  are  wholly  unnecessary  here.  The  main  drive 
has  its  character  clearly  shown  (a)  by  being  the  more  direct  —  it 
lies  exactly  in  front  of  the  entering  visitor;  {b)  by  being  wider  than 
the  service  drive,  and  (c)  by  being  on  the  side  toward  the  gate 
lodge,  the  side  to  which  the  visitor's  attention  must  necessarily  be 
turned  when  he  enters. 

In  short  this  little  plan  presents  an  excellent  example  of  struc- 

56 


ENTRANCE    ROAD 


tural  design.  Every  part  is  placed  where  it  belongs.  The  skeleton 
structure  of  the  property  is  strictly  what  it  ought  to  be  —  it  con- 
forms exactly  to  the  functions  to  be  performed.  It  therefore  re- 
quires no  explanations  —  no  sign-board  to  show  the  way. 

Problem:  The  pupil  should  copy  this  plan  at  a  scale  of  1''  = 
20'. 

Supplementary  Study 

It  will  be  worth  while  for  the  pupil  to  examine  the  main  en- 
trances to  a  number  of  estates,  public  and  private,  some  small, 
some  large.  These  may  include  school  grounds,  college  campuses, 
cemeteries,  church  grounds  and  any  others  available.  Try  to  see 
whether  the  present  entrance  plans  are  satisfactory.  If  satisfactory, 
what  are  the  good  points;  if  unsatisfactory,  how  could  they  be  im- 
proved. It  is  especially  desirable  to  have  each  pupil  make  a  meas- 
ured and  scaled  plan  of  some  existing  entrance  area  and  prepare  a 
new  plan.  It  will  be  well  for  all  members  of  a  class  to  take  the 
same  problem  in  this  case.  When  the  plans  are  complete  they 
should  be  put  up  together  and  criticized  by  the  whole  class. 


57 


LESSON    13 

Cemetery  Entrance 

HIS  lesson  is  intended  to  present  a  simple  prob- 
lem in  design.  The  design  is  shown  both  in 
horizontal  plan  and  perspective. 

Illustrations 

The  plan  is  taken  from  a  recent  German 
book  on  suburban  gardening.*  The  conditions 
represented  are  typical  and  such  as  might  be  met  almost  any- 
where.    The  solution  is  simple,  practical  and  interesting. 

Discussion 

The  land  is  slightly  sloping,  being  about  three  feet  higher  in- 
side the  cemetery  gate  than  in  the  street.  The  land  slopes  also 
somewhat  to  the  left,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  perspective  drawing. 

Entrance  is  made  at  the  corner  of  the  cemetery  ground,  a  very 
practical  arrangement,  especially  for  a  foot  entrance  like  this.  The 
entrance  is  dignified  by  being  recessed  from  the  street,  and  this 
effect  of  breadth  and  dignity  is  further  enhanced  by  the  broad 
flight  of  steps  and  by  the  two  flanking  benches.  The  two  large 
deciduous  trees  are  a  main  feature  of  the  picture. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  entrance  is  not  formal,  i.e.,  not  sym- 
metrical. It  is  not  on  the  axis  of  the  entering  street.  This  asym- 
metrical arrangement  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the  present 
design.  For  the  development  of  a  formal  design  it  would  be  es- 
sential that  the  entrance  gate  should  be  on  the  central  axis  of  the 
approaching  road  and  that  the  whole  design  should  be  developed 

*  Lange,  Land-und  Gartensiedelungen,  88.     Leipzig,  1910. 

58 


CEMETERY    ENTRANCE 


symmetrically  upon  this  axis.  However  if  one  will  now  consider 
the  problem  of  making  an  attractive  photograph  of  this  entrance 
(that  is  of  determining  its  pictorial  value  and  its  best  point  of  view) 


Fia.  23.    Plan  of  Cemetery  Entrance 


he  will  soon  discover  that  this  entire  grouping  is  more  effective 
when  viewed  from  an  angle  than  when  photographed  straight  in 
front.  This  problem  thus  brings  out  one  of  the  radical  differences 
between  formal  and  informal  design. 


59 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  24.    Perspective  of  Cemetery  Entrance 

Problems 

The  student  should  first  reproduce  these  drawings  on  a  larger 
scale. 

After  this  has  been  done  and  the  ideas  presented  are  fully  under- 
stood, the  student  should  make  a  study  and  paced  survey  of  one 
or  more  entrance  problems  upon  local  parks,  cemeteries,  play- 
grounds, church  grounds  or  other  available  properties.  Upon  such 
surveys  and  studies  he  should  design  attractive  entrances,  using 
trees,  fences,  gates,  steps,  seats  and  other  features  as  may  seem 
necessary. 


60 


LESSON    14 

Park  Entrance 

HIS  lesson  offers  an  opportunity  to  study  a  de- 
sign for  a  city  park  entrance.  The  problem  is 
similar  in  general  character  to  the  two  entrance 
studies  already  examined;  but  in  this  case  the 
entrance  being  to  a  larger  area,  used  by  a  much 
larger  volume  of  traffic,  the  treatment  is  neces- 
sarily more  elaborate. 


Illustration 

The  example  herewith  shown  is  from  a  design  for  the  main 
entrance  to  Lincoln  Park,  Manitowoc,  Wis.  The  design  and  draw- 
ing are  by  Mr.  F.  A.  Gushing  Smith,  landscape  architect,  Chicago. 

The  approach  is  by  two  streets  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  this  condition  makes  the  problem  of  designing  an  artistic  en- 
trance especially  difficult.  Mr.  Smith  has  met  this  condition  by 
developing  a  monumental  feature  at  the  intersection  of  the  two 
streets.  Each  street  thus  terminates  definitively  upon  this  mon- 
ument. The  monument  moreover  becomes  the  entrance  feature 
of  the  park,  marking  the  gateway  with  an  object  of  dignity,  beauty 
and  interest.  The  conservatory  is  so  placed  as  to  emphasize  fur- 
ther the  terminus  of  the  incoming  boulevard  and  to  introduce  the 
park  motive,  and  to  add  further  interest  to  the  entrance  area. 

Other  features  of  the  design  are  sufficiently  explained  in  the 
drawing. 


61 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


li  COn5ER.VATOR.rl 


K..  riAin  ^ppRO^CH'f  EnTR.AncE 
,J      LincoLM    Par.^ 
AT  riAttiTowoc  -  Wisconsin 


,   .  F.A.CYSHlHG^niTH  -TOWrtPLAffHK 
v^v         Cm   t  c  a.  g  o 


Fig.  25.     Entrance  to  a  Park 


Problems 


The  sketch  plan,  Figure  25,  should  be  copied  in  ink.  This  is 
an  excellent  example  of  landscape  drawing  and  the  technic  here 
shown  may  be  safely  imitated  by  the  student. 

The  student  should  then  work  out  a  design  of  his  own  for  a 
park  entrance.  The  entrance  to  a  school  or  college  campus  will 
afford  good  matter  for  study.  In  this  case  it  will  be  best  for  all 
students  to  work  upon  the  same  problem.  Drawings  should  be 
submitted  on  a  uniform  scale.  A  scale  of  1"  =  40'  will  be  con- 
venient in  most  cases.  Drawings  should  all  be  in  the  same  medium, 
preferably  ink.  These  drawings  should  be  exhibited  together,  freely 
discussed  and  criticized. 


62 


LESSON    15 

Automobile  Turn 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  illustrate  one 
method  of  designing  an  automobile  turn  and  to 
give  the  student  practice  in  drafting. 

Assignment 

Make  the  cleanest  and  neatest  copy  possi- 
ble of  the  drawing  here  shown,  Figure  26.  Do 
not  trace  the  drawing  —  redraw  it  at  a  larger  scale.  A  scale  of 
1"  =  20'  will  usually  be  convenient. 

The  new  drawing  should  be  made  first  in  pencil,  using  medium 
hard  lead.  It  should  then  be  inked.  This  inking  may  be  made 
with  ruling  pen  and  compass,  or  it  may  be  made  free-hand  with  a 
fairly  coarse  writing  pen,  as  was  the  original  drawing  here  repro- 
duced. Where  drawings  are  to  be  used  for  taking  off  measure- 
ments in  construction  they  should  be  accurately  drawn  with  ruling 
pen,  but  when  they  are  to  serve  as  diagrams  merely  to  illustrate  an 
idea,  as  in  this  case,  they  can  be  done  better  by  the  free-hand  method 
here  recommended. 

Be  careful  not  to  get  ink  under  the  edge  of  the  triangle  in  cross- 
hatching;  be  careful  to  get  the  cross-hatching  even;  get  a  firm,  clean 
outline  on  the  shrubbery  masses;  make  the  lines  connect  without 
break  where  the  change  comes  from  straight  line  to  arc  of  circle; 
be  sure  that  the  stippling  which  represents  lawn  is  made  with  uni- 
form dots;  and  that  requires  that  the  pen  does  not  drag  or  scratch. 

Discussion 

The  arrangement  here  proposed  for  an  automobile  turn  is 
easily  constructed  and  is  very  economical  of  space.     It  can  be  in- 

63 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


n    _^       o        yo       up       30       -40  >y:;^z./r 
Jouth      r      ^Y  t        ^\'    ^  s/Yortf; 


House 


t 


»S      T    T?     E.      EI4     T- 

Fig.  26.    Automobile  Turn 

troduced  in  many  places  where  a  full  circular  turn  would  be  im- 
possible. The  circular  turn,  in  fact,  in  its  usual  form,  is  always 
wasteful  of  space  and  expensive  in  construction.  Moreover  it  is 
unsightly  and  disfiguring  to  any  private  grounds.  It  is  admis- 
sible only  when  introduced  in  connection  with  a  porte-cochere  on  a 
large  place  or  as  a  formal  fore-court  before  large  formal  buildings. 
A  complete  turn  in  front  of  an  ordinary  residence  is  an  abomination 
which  ought  to  be  avoided  at  any  cost. 

64 


AUTOMOBILE    TURN 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  form  of  turn  here  suggested  can  be 
used  also  in  front  of  a  garage.  The  drive  could  be  carried  further 
back  and  directly  into  the  garage  door  if  desired. 

The  pupil  will  find  it  interesting  to  make  an  examination  of 
any  good  residence  street  and  determine  how  many  home  grounds 
could  be  best  served  by  an  automobile  turn  and  parking  space 
designed  after  this  model. 


65 


LESSON   16 

Cemetery  Lot 

ERE  we  have  presented  the  problem  of  the  aver- 
age cemetery  lot.  This  problem  recurs  with 
great  frequency,  but  the  solutions  commonly 
offered  are  worked  out  by  everybody  except  a 
competent  landscape  gardener.  The  student  is 
now  asked  to  consider  what  the  conditions  re- 
quire in  the  way  of  clean  and  orderly  treatment. 

Discussion 

The  general  conditions  in  this  problem  are  very  well  under- 
stood, being  the  same  all  over  North  America.  Lots  are  small  and 
are  surrounded  by  other  lots  all  suffering  from  highly  individual- 
istic treatment.  Each  lot  owner  does  his  best,  though  that  best 
often  indicates  lack  of  both  imagination  and  taste.  In  a  few  radical 
cemeteries  something  has  been  accomplished  by  taking  the  man- 
agement of  lots  out  of  individual  hands  and  referring  the  whole 
landscape  treatment,  including  monuments,  to  some  central  com- 
mittee, sometimes  placing  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  a  trained 
superintendent  or  landscape  gardener. 

In  general  the  cemetery  lot  calls  for  extreme  simplicity,  even 
severity,  of  treatment.  Any  fanciful  "ornamental"  features  would 
be  highly  incongruous.  The  necessity  for  such  restraint,  though 
inherent  in  the  individual  problem,  is  much  emphasized  by  the  fact 
that  each  lot  is  surrounded  by  others  in  which  the  competition  for 
display  and  bad  taste  easily  rises  to  a  height  which  can  never  be 
outdone. 

Specifically  the  requirements  of  the  small  cemetery  lot  may  be 
stated  as  follows: 


CEMETERY     LOT 


Typical    DE5i6n 

CtntTiJLY  Lor, 

Chicago 

F.  A.Cv5H)rtG  Smith 

LAnrSCAPE  A^CHITECr 

Chic  ago 


Wfr..   -^- 


Fig.  27.     Project  for  Two  Cemetery  Lots 

The  ground  should  be  smooth  and  level.  Mounding,  bank- 
ing or  terracing  is  inadmissible,  unless  very  exceptional  conditions 
have  to  be  met. 

The  ground  should  be  in  grass,  and  the  grass  should  be  kept 
mowed.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions  to  this  rule  also,  but  they 
are  genuine  exceptions. 

The  monuments,  head-stones  and  foot-stones  should  be  as  few 
as  possible;  and  each  one  should  be  as  small,  simple  and  incon- 
spicuous as  it  can  be  made. 

All  these  furnishings  should  be  kept  in  repair;  they  should 
always  stand  plumb. 

Other  furnishings,  such  as  iron  fences,  iron  garden  seats,  etc., 
should  be  omitted. 

Deciduous  trees,  with  their  quiet  shadows  upon  the  mown 
lawns,  make  the  ideal  plantings  for  cemeteries.     While  it  is  imprac- 

67 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

ticable  for  each  lot  to  have  one  large  oak  or  beech,  a  few  large  trees, 
properly  placed  and  grouped,  will  do  more  to  dignify  any  section 
of  any  cemetery  than  anything  else  which  can  be  planted.  There 
is  a  custom  too  common  in  this  country  of  planting  evergreens  and 
weeping  trees  in  cemeteries.  Neither  one  has  anything  to  recom- 
mend it. 


Fig.  28.  Appropriate  Treatment  of  Cemetery  Lot 


Flowering  shrubs,  such  as  roses,  lilacs  and  spireas  are  some- 
times planted  on  private  lots.  They  may  be  managed  in  a  way  to 
make  them  agreeable,  or  at  least  unobjectionable,  but  they  must  be 
introduced  with  great  care. 

Beds  of  flowers,  such  as  cannas,  geraniums  or  heliotrope,  are 
always  objectionable. 


CEMETERY     LOT 


Clipped  hedges  of  buckthorn,  privet  or  evergreen  species  may 
rarely  be  used. 

Illustration 

In  the  sketch,  Figure  27,  the  treatment  for  two  typical  cemetery 
lots  is  suggested  by  Mr.  F.  A.  Gushing  Smith,  landscape  architect, 
Chicago,  111.  These  show  free  use  of  deciduous  shade  trees  sup- 
ported by  informal  plantings  of  hardy  shrubs.  These  are  arranged 
so  as  to  make  sketchy  boundaries  for  each  lot,  giving  a  little  touch 
of  privacy.  The  monument  on  Lot  No.  5  is  set  off  with  a  small 
clipped  formal  evergreen  at  each  corner  with  a  small  border  plant- 
ing between,  perhaps  of  ivy,  periwinkle  or  pachysandra.  An  in- 
teresting note  is  struck  by  using  flat  irregular  stepping  stones  in 
the  grass. 

Problem 

The  student  should  now  measure  some  cemetery  lot  with  which 
he  is  acquainted  and  should  prepare  a  plan  for  its  permanent  im- 
provement. This  plan  should  be  made  in  ink  at  a  scale  of  1''  = 
1^  The  plans  of  all  members  of  the  class  should  be  compared  and 
criticized. 

Questions 

What  are  the  dimensions  of  the  average  cemetery  lot?  Could 
these  be  larger,  and  would  larger  lots  be  advisable? 

What  defects  of  treatment  are  most  frequent  in  individual  ceme- 
tery lots  within  your  observation? 

What  is  meant  by  "  perpetual  care  "  in  cemetery  management? 
How  is  it  effected?  and  what  should  it  cost? 


69 


LESSON    17 

Street  Cross-Sections 

N  order  to  understand  the  problems  of  road  im- 
provement it  is  important  to  have  a  detailed 
knowledge  of  road  design.  These  details  are 
more  numerous,  more  intricate  and  more  signifi- 
cant than  the  average  person  supposes.  The 
present  study  should  introduce  the  pupil  to 
some  of  these  data,  especially  those  which  con- 
cern the  plan  of  the  public  highway  and  the  arrangement  of  its 
furnishings. 

Materials 

The  principal  studies  should  be  made  upon  existing  roads  and 
streets  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school.  A  tape  line  or  engineer's  chain 
will  be  needed  to  make  measurements.  These  findings  should  be 
supplemented  by  readings  suggested  at  the  end  of  this  lesson. 

Procedure 

Each  pupil  should  make  a  detailed  measurement  of  cross-sec- 
tions on  two  or  three  streets  of  different  types  —  country  roads, 
residence  streets,  business  streets,  etc.  These  measurements  should 
run  from  property  line  to  property  line  and  should  locate  precisely 
all  features,  such  as  sidewalks,  trees,  curbs,  gutters,  drains,  paving, 
etc.  This  information  should  be  drawn  out  in  the  form  shown  here- 
with (Figure  29).  All  sections  should  be  drawn  to  the  same  scale 
in  order  to  facilitate  comparison.  A  scale  of  1"  =  10'  will  usually 
serve. 

After  these  drawings  have  been  made  for  a  considerable  number 

70 


STREET    CROSS-SECTIONS 


of  cross-sections,  they  should  be  pinned  up  together  on  the  display 
board  for  comparison  and  study. 

(J.  6.  Housms  CoRPoRRTion 

-  •   •  •'  M^^' 


U-O"        i«        U-o" \ 


Fig.  29.    Street  Sections.    Adopted  bp  U.  S  Housing  Corporation 

— ^ r- 


^11^3' -^2'^ 


Fig.  30.    Connecticut  State  Roads  —  Standard  Cross-Section 


Fig.  31.     Massachusetts  State  Highways  Standard  Cross-Section 

Studij 

The  cross-sections  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  were  those 
adopted  as  standard  by  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation  for 
the  extensive  town  planning  operations  carried  on  during  the  World 

71 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

War.  They  may  be  regarded  as  an  expression  of  the  very  best 
judgment  possible  upon  the  needs  of  American  residence  districts. 
Herewith  are  given  also  (Figure  31)  the  details  of  cross-section 
for  Massachusetts  state  roads.  These  represent  country  road  re- 
quirements, but  the  measurements  do  not  run  from  property  line 
to  property  line,  and  so  do  not  include  certain  elements  of  impor- 
tance even  in  county  highways. 


HMHI^     %^,..     ^ 

mu;. 

— WL  . 

\'^^»l^f^^^?f|F 

>'^:^-'H'<^-- 

"/■'"•."'^-flHW^H 

w'i-nt 

V      '  -  :  'i-'^' 

^'■'^■'^^'^^^■^i;i.:^v^ 

KiU-M:^^^ 

m-^^ 

-  ■■''^liMp^f^'^^^!-^  y^^^^ 

A^iui 

9^i^W 

^/-^..^'■w -  ,^ 

^'; 

-'m 

I  '"*■ 

^BS^F^^^^ 

m 

M^.    ■  . 

Fig,  32.    Wide  Street  with  Double  Row  of  Trees  at  Center  —  Colorado  Springs 


The  following  general  observations  may  be  noted : 

1.  The  right  of  way  is  often  needlessly  wide  in  American  cities 
and  villages  and  in  the  country.  In  the  government  survey  dis- 
tricts of  the  Middle  West  and  elsewhere  the  public  right  of  way  is 
four  rods,  sixty-six  feet  wide,  though  one-half  that  space  is  ample 
for  all  road  purposes. 

72 


STREET    CROSS-SECTIONS 


2.  The  paved  or  improved  portion  of  the  roadbed  is  often  need- 
lessly wide.  It  should  be  just  wide  enough  to  carry  the  traffic  and 
no  wider. 


Fig.  33.     Broad  Street  with  Central  Parking  Space— Colorado  Springs 


3.  The  sidewalk  is  best  placed  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  street, 
the  outer  edge  of  the  sidewalk  coinciding  with  the  property  line. 

4.  The  sidewalk  should  be  well  made  and  no  wider  than  nec- 
essary. 

5.  Trees  should  be  planted  between  the  sidewalk  and  the 
roadway. 

6.  Service  wires  of  all  sorts  should  be  kept  out  of  the  streets 
as  much  as  possible.  At  the  present  time  too  much  leniency  is 
shown  toward  these  intrusions,  always  detrimental  to  the  streets. 

7.  The  roadway  should  be  well  built  and  capable  of  carrying 
the  traffic. 

73 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

8.  The  entire  highway  should  be  clean  and  orderly.  It  should 
not  be  filled  with  weeds.  However  native  growth  of  trees,  shrubs 
and  wild  flowers  may  be  permissible  and  desirable  in  country  roads 
when  properly  disposed. 

Query:  Where  are  the  best  sections  of  road  or  street  in  your 
neighborhood?  Consider  in  detail  what  merits  these  sections  ex- 
hibit. 

Readings 
Robinson,  City  Planning,  New  York,  1916. 


74 


LESSON   18 


Streets  —  General  Study 

HE  pupil  should  have  reached  the  point 
where  he  can  quickly  take  a  comprehensive 
of  any  street  and 


now 
view 


J,\ 


SCOTIOM 


be  able  to  judge 
its  good  points 
and  its  deficien- 
cies with  prompt- 
ness and  accuracy.  The  purpose 
now  is  to  make^uch  critical  studies 
of  a  number  of  streets  of  different 
types. 

Materials 

These  studies  may  be  made 
upon  streets  in  the  neighborhood; 
but  if  it  is  possible  for  pupils  to 
extend  these  examinations  to 
country  districts,  towns  and  cities 
at  some  distance  from  home  the 
information  gained  will  be  quite  as 
valuable  and  even  more  interesting. 
Preceding  studies  should  have  made 
the  pupils  sufficiently  famiUar  with 
near-by  streets. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  study 
it    will    be    desirable,    though    not      ^'^-  ^*-   ^^^^  ^Z  ^^^^^^^^^  ^^«^^^ 

IN  A  Village 

necessary,    to    provide    each   pupil 

with  a  number  of  blank  forms   as   shown   below.     One  of   these 
forms   should  be  filled   out  for  each   street  examined. 

75 


-y^i 


Maim    CtSICttlTlAU     YlLUACt    5TEtCT 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Form  A 

Study  of  Streets 

A.   Equipment 

Road  bed:     Character  (earth,  gravel,  macadam),  good  or  bad? 

Gutters:        How  deep?     Are  they  too  deep?     Are  they  properly  formed? 

—  of  what  material? 
Curb:    What  material?     good  or  bad? 
Sidewalks:    Width,  material,  location. 
Parkings:     (including  grass)  width,  condition. 
Fences:    Present  or  absent;  good  or  bad;  are  they  needed? 
Bridges:     Kind;  quality. 
Culverts:     Kind;  quality;  are  others  needed? 
Catchbasins:    Present?     Are  they  needed? 
Street  Signs:    Present?    Are  they  needed? 

B.     Public  Service 

Poles:     Kind;  how  many?     good  or  bad?     Are  they  indispensable? 

Wires:     Kind;  how  many?     Are  they  dangerous?     Are  they  indispensable? 

Car  lines:    Number  and  kind;  are  they  necessary? 

Sewerage:     Present?     O.K.? 

Gas:     Present?     O.K.? 

Water:     (including  hydrants)     Present?     O.K.? 

Mailboxes:     Present?     O.K.? 

Fire  alarms:     Police  alarm;  present?     O.K.? 

C.  Ornament 

Trees:    Kinds;  age;  condition. 

Shrubs:    Kinds;  condition;  are  shrubs  needed? 

D.  Nuisances 

Dumps:    Whose? 
Bill  boards:     Why? 
Weeds:    What  kind? 

Report  on Street 

By   Date   

76 


STREET  S— GENERAL    STUDY 

Procedure 

As  soon  as  these  studies  have  been  made  they  should  be  as- 
sembled, compared  and  criticized.  It  will  be  practicable  to  have 
the  pupils  answer  such  questions  as  the  following: 

1.  What  is  the  best  type  of  street  paving  for  this  locality? 

2.  What  are  the  comparative  merits  of  gravel,  macadam,  con- 
crete? 

3.  What  should  be  the  cost  of  street  construction  of  different 
types?     What  should  be  the  normal  cost  of  street  maintenance? 

4.  Where  have  you  found  the  best  parkings?  best  plantings? 
best  curbs?  best  culverts?  best  bridges?  best  street  signs?  etc.  etc. 

The  teacher  should  be  able  to  extend  the  hst  of  such  questions 
considerably  so  as  to  cover  matters  of  special  interest  to  his  students 
and  to  his  locality. 

It  may  seem  worth  while,  if  time  permits,  to  construct  and  use 
a  score  card  upon  the  roads  in  the  neighborhood.  The  construction 
of  such  a  score  card  is  a  problem  which  may  well  be  assigned  to  the 
class  itself. 

An  exhibit  of  photographs  of  streets,  street  plantings,  street 
furnishings,  etc.,  may  be  prepared  by  the  class.  Hundreds  of  post- 
cards, for  example,  can  be  gathered  showing  streets  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  These  can  be  studied,  compared  and  criticized  to  the 
full  limit  of  available  time. 


77 


LESSON   19 

Street  Trees  —  Varieties 

HE  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  familiarize  the  pupil 
with  the  different  kinds  of  street  trees  growing 
in  his  vicinity.  The  number  of  species  is  prob- 
ably small,  and  the  pupil  should  be  able  easily 
to  learn  all  that  are  of  any  importance.  He 
should  learn  their  appearance  in  summer  and 
winter,  their  principal  characteristics,  their  spe- 
cific advantages  and  defects. 

Materials 

Altogether  the  most  valuable  studies  can  be  made  from  the 
trees  themselves.  Books  or  bulletins  should  be  used  only  rarely 
for  identification  or  to  verify  names.  Use  scientific  names  only 
when  the  vernacular  names  are  untrustworthy. 

Procedure 

Each  pupil  should  be  assigned  a  considerable  territory  for  ex- 
amination —  not  less  than  one  mile  and  not  more  than  two  miles 
of  city  or  village  street  on  which  trees  are  growing.  If  some  of 
these  are  old  trees  and  some  sections  newly  planted,  so  much  the 
better.  Each  pupil  should  then  proceed  to  make  a  detailed  ex- 
amination of  the  streets  assigned. 

First  of  all  he  should  make  a  simple  inventory  by  species. 
This  can  be  noted  on  a  check-list,  in  this  form: 

American  elm  11:11  tHl  IHl  :D141  IHl  1111 

Sugar  maple  tlil  tUl  IIU  TM  1 

Soft  (silver)  maple  mi  tHl  IHl  mi  mi  IHl  till 

Horse  chestnut  IHl  1111 

Catalpa  mi  11 

Etc. 

78 


Fig.  35.     Pin  Oaks  in  Winter 


Fig.  36.     Palmettoes  on  a  Stkeet  in  Savannah 

79 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

When  all  pupils  report  their  inventories  should  be  summar- 
ized and  reduced  to  percentages.  Such  a  summary  will  indicate 
the  relative  popularity  of  the  several  species  used  as  street  trees; 
and  this  popularity,  with  some  exceptions,  is  a  fair  index  of  the  use- 
fulness of  the  different  species. 


Fig.  37.    Live  Oak  in  Savannah 

Questions 

What  species  are  overplanted?  and  what  species  might  well  be 
more  generally  planted?  This  inquiry  involves  a  searching  criti- 
cism of  the  foregoing  findings,  and  this  discussion  should  be  given 
ample  time  in  class. 

In  the  field  examination,  however,  the  pupil  should  collect 
other  information  beyond  the  mere  census  of  trees.     He  should 

80 


STREET    TREE  S—VARIET  lES 

particularly  try  to  answer  the  following  questions  regarding  each 
species : 

1.  What  are  its  outstanding  charactistics? 

2.  What  are  its  good  points? 

3.  What  are  its  defects? 

4.  For  what  conditions  is  it  particularly  adapted? 

The  note-book  should  then  contain,  at  the  end  of  this  study, 
a  series  of  entries  in  the  following  form : 

Street  Trees  —  American  elm  —  Tall,  spreading,  vase- 
form,  branches  high,  leaving  tall  clean  trunk;  varies  much 
in  form;  hardy,  withstands  wind  and  drouth;  foliage 
good;  adapted  to  city  and  village  streets  where  plenty  of 
room  is  available. 

Street  Trees  —  Catalpa  —  Small,  and  rather  irregular, 
low  bushy  top,  hardy,  not  subject  to  insect  attacks,  has 
fine  flowers;  short  lived  and  poor  shade;  suitable  for 
narrow  streets  and  hard  conditions  where  better  trees 
cannot  be  grown. 

These  reports  should,  of  course,  be  read  and  criticized  in  class. 


81 


LESSON  20 
Street  Trees  —  Technical  Studies 

N  this  study  the  pupil  should  master  the  practical 
or  technical  details  which  are  essential  in  order 
to  enable  him  to  manage  street  trees  and  get 
the  best  results. 

Materials 

The  study  should  be  conducted  in  the  field 
upon  street  trees  of  the  neighborhood.  There  are  many  books  and 
bulletins  dealing  with  the  care  of  trees,  pruning,  spraying,  so-called 
tree  surgery,  city  forestry,  etc.  Some  of  these  books  are  listed 
amongst  the  reference  readings  below.  They  should  be  studied 
as  fully  as  time  permits,  but  the  first  and  most  important  step  in 
the  work  is  to  become  acquainted  with  the  trees  themselves  and 
with  the  conditions  under  which  they  live. 

Study 

Each  pupil  should  be  assigned  to  a  certain  section  planted  with 
street  trees.  This  should  be  the  equivalent  of  not  less  than  two 
city  blocks  nor  more  than  one  half  mile.  On  this  space  he  should 
gather  all  possible  information,  such  as  that  suggested  below: 

1 .  What  is  the  character  of  the  street  under  study  —  country 
road,  village  residence  section,  business  street,  or  what? 

2.  To  what  extent  is  the  street  traversed  by  electric  car  lines, 
electric  service  wires,  telephone  wires,  gas  mains,  water  mains,  sewers, 
etc.? 

3.  What  is  the  character  of  the  soil? 

4.  What  other  conditions  have  any  effect  on  the  growth  or 

health  of  trees? 

82 


STREET    TREES—TECHNICAL    STUDIES 


Cultural  conditions  should  then  be  examined  in  detail. 

1.  How  far  apart  are  the  trees  planted? 

2.  Is  the  alignment  exact?     If  there  are  deviations  from  strict 
alignment  why  have  they  been  made?  and  what  is  the  result? 

3.  Where  are  the  trees  placed  with  reference  to  sidewalk,  curb, 
pavement?     Is  there  ample  space  for  trees  to  grow? 


Fig.  38.     Good  Location  of  Sidewalk  and  Other  Details 

4.  Have  the  trees  been  pruned?     How?     Is  the  pruning  satis- 
factory? 

5.  Have  tree  guards  been  used?     Are  they  needed?     Are  they 
satisfactory? 

6.  How  many  trees  have  broken  tops?     Due  to  ice  storms  or 
other  causes? 

7.  How  many  trees  show  injury  to  trunk  from  gnawing  horses 
or  similar  causes? 

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TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

8.  How  many  trees  show  burning  or  similar  injury  from  electric 
wires? 

9.  How  many  trees  show  gas  poison?  (It  may  be  necessary 
to  read  up  on  the  symptoms  of  this  disease.) 

10.  List  any  other  defects. 

It  will  probably  be  found  that  a  vary  large  percentage  of  street 
trees  are  defective  in  one  way  or  another.  In  fact  there  are  many 
sections  where  hardly  a  perfect  tree  can  be  found.  When  the  re- 
ports of  all  members  of  the  class  are  brought  together  and  summar- 
ized they  should  show  the  number  of  instances  of  ice  damage,  horse 
damage,  gas,  poison,  electric  line  injury,  etc.  This  will  indicate 
pretty  clearly  what  causes  pull  down  the  average  health  of  trees, 
and  thus  suggest  where  effort  should  be  directed  toward  improving 
conditions. 

Other  matters  which  may  be  investigated  if  there  is  time  are 
drainage,  irrigation,  fertilization,  spraying  and  laws  for  the  pro- 
tection of  trees. 

References 

SoLOTAROFF,  Shade-trces  in  Towns  and  Cities,  New  York,  1911. 
Peets,  Practical  Tree  Repair,  New  York,  1916. 

MuLFORD,  Planting  and  Care  of  Street  Trees,    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Far- 
mers' Bui.  1209,  Aug.  1921. 


84 


LESSON   21 

Street  Trees  —  Results 

HE  object  of  this  exercise  is  to  find  and  to  enjoy 
the  best  street  trees  within  reach.  Every  pupil 
must  look  for  the  finest  trees  and  must  use  his 
own  taste  in  deciding  which  trees  are  really  best. 
This  exercise  of  taste  (as  we  call  judgment  in 
reference  to  beauty)  is  an  exceedingly  important 
practice  for  the  pupil.  It  will  never  do  always 
to  take  some  one  else's  word  for  what  is  the  best  literature,  what  is 
good  music  or  which  are  the  most  beautiful  trees.  The  pupil's  own 
taste  must  be  trained  by  exercise,  and  must  eventually  be  satisfied 
with  results. 

Another  characteristic  and  important  feature  of  this  lesson  is 
the  search  for  what  is  best.  The  pupil  is  not  asked  to  find  the 
worst  specimens,  nor  to  make  any  comparison  between  best  and 
worst.  One  should  always  seek  to  see  the  best  and  should  pay  the 
least  possible  attention  to  the  worst.  This  attitude  of  mind  is 
essential  to  art  and  is  to  be  recommended  in  all  departments  of  life. 
(For  good  scriptural  support  read  Paul  in  Philippians  4  :  8.) 

Procedure 

Each  pupil  is  directed  to  examine  all  street  trees  within  reach 
and  to  answer  in  writing  the  following  questions: 

1.  Where  is  the  best  block  of  street  trees  in  the  town  (city  or 
other  area  under  study)? 

2.  What  species  are  they? 

3.  How  old  are  they? 

4.  How  far  apart  are  they  spaced?  How  large  are  they? 
Give  any  interesting  facts  concerning  them. 

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5.  Where  is  the  best  single  specimen  in  any  street  in  the  town? 

6.  What  species  is  it?  How  old  is  it?  Give  any  other  interest- 
ing information.  If  possible  photographs  of  good  street  plantings 
and  good  individual  trees  should  be  submitted. 


Fig.  39.     'I'hk  Arching  American  Elms 

Discussion 

All  these  reports  should  come  up  for  full  discussion  before  the 
assembled  class.  Should  any  difference  of  opinion  develop  as  to 
which  trees  are  to  be  judged  best  these  competitive  cases  should  be 

86 


STREET    TREES  — RESULT  S 


examined  with  care.  It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  a  positive 
decision  be  reached  as  to  which  is  best;  but  it  is  of  the  utmost  value 
that  each  pupil  should  put  his  own  preferences  to  the  stringent  test 
of  argument. 

If  a  number  of  photographs  can  be  collected  for  an  exhibit 
these  will  assist  in  clarifying  everybody's  ideas. 


87 


LESSON   22 

Base-Ball  Field 

HE  problem  in  this  lesson  is  that  of  laying  ofT  a 
standard  base-ball  field. 

Discussion 

The  landscape  gardener  is  often  called  upon 

to  lay  off  athletic  fields  or  game  courts  of  various 

kinds.       He    should    have     at     his     command 

full  information  regarding  the  standard  dimensions,  and  the  fullest 

possible  knowledge  of  general  requirements. 

The  standard  base-ball  diamond  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  square 
exactly  90  feet  on  a  side  with  a  distance  of  60  feet  6  inches  from 
pitcher's  mound  to  home  base.  In  playgrounds  for  children  it  is 
customary  to  lay  off  what  is  known  as  a  boy's  diamond  60  feet 
square. 

Besides  the  diamond  itself  the  regular  base-ball  field  includes 
other  features  such  as  the  coach  line,  players'^line  and  clear  space 
for  back-field  and  out-field  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

Illustration 

The  drawing.  Figure  40,  shows  the  layout  of  the  standard 
base-ball  field.  The  dimensions  instead  of  being  read  from  a  scale 
are  shown  in  figures  on  the  drawing.  This  method  of  expressing 
measurements  is  frequently  used  in  architectural  and  mechanical 
drawings,  though  rarely  employed  in  the  maps  of  engineers  and 
landscape  gardeners. 


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Fig.  40.     Standard  Base-Ball  Field 


Assignments 

The  pupil  should  make  a  drawing  of  the  standard  base-ball 
diamond  for  preservation  in  his  own  note-book.  This  should  be 
made  in  ink  at  a  convenient  scale,  say  \"  =  10\ 

It  will  then  prove  a  valuable  exercise  if  the  student,  or  group  of 
students,  can  lay  out  an  actual  base-ball  diamond  on  a  piece  of 
suitable  land. 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Questions 

1.  How  many  acres  of  land  will  be  required  to  lay  out  a  good 
base-ball  field? 

2.  What  orientation  is  most  desirable? 


90 


LESSON  23 

Tennis  Court 

HE  problem  presented  in  this  lesson  is  the  layout 
of  the  standard  tennis  court. 

Discussion 

The  general  requirements  of  a  tennis  court 

are  commonly  understood.     They  need  not  be 

taken  up  here.     Neither  is  it  necessary  at  this  time 

to  enter  into  any  discussion  of  the  practical  construction  of  a  court. 

Every  landscape  gardener  however  is  frequently  required  to 

lay  out  tennis  courts.     He  should  have  at  hand  full  information 


/T 1 — 57 


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C  OVH  T 


Fig.  41.    Standard  Plan  of  Tennis  Court 

regarding  dimensions  and  all  other  requirements,  including  of  course 
the  practical  requirements  of  construction. 

The  dimensions  of  the  standard  tennis  court  are  shown  on  the 
accompanying  drawing,  being  recorded  in  figures  after  the  method 

91 


TENNIS     COURT 


often  employed  in  architect's  drawings.     No  variation  from  these 
dimensions  should  be  allowed  in  any  tennis  court. 

Assignments 

The  student  should  draw  an  accurate  plan  of  a  standard  tennis 
court  for  preservation  in  his  personal  note-book. 

It  will  then  be  found  worth  while  for  each  student,  or  for  groups 
of  students,  to  have  actual  practice  in  laying  out  a  tennis  court 
on  the  ground. 

Questions 

1.  What  materials  are  best  for  the  construction  of  a  tennis  court? 

2.  What  should  be  the  cost  of  construction  of  a  good  court  in 
various  materials? 


92 


LESSON   24 

Bowling  Green 

HIS  exercise  is  introduced  here  for  two  purposes. 
The  first  is  to  provide  an  interesting  lesson  in 
drawing.  The  second  is  to  acquaint  the  student 
with  the  design  of  a  bowHng  green. 

Definition 

A  bowHng  green  is  a  court,  covered  with 
thick,  close  turf,  and  used  for  bowhng.  This  game  of  bowls  upon 
the  lawn  is  very  different  from  the  more  popular  game  of  bowling 
upon  indoor  alleys  as  practiced  in  America.  The  outdoor  game  is 
a  favorite  with  Englishmen  and  Scotchmen,  especially  the  latter. 
It  is  really  a  delightful  outdoor  sport  and  worthy  of  much  wider 
acceptance  in  this  country.  It  might  well  be  introduced  in  parks, 
country  clubs,  college  athletic  fields  and  private  grounds. 

Assignment 

The  pupil  will  redraw  this  design  to  scale  of  1"  =  10';  or  it 
may  seem  best  to  make  a  larger  copy  using  the  architects  "quarter 
scale,"  i.e.,  V  =  A'.  Make  a  good  clean  drawing  in  ink.  This 
design  also  works  well  when  rendered  in  water  color,  but  water 
color  renderings  are  hardly  worth  the  attempt  unless  the  beginner 
has  the  personal  help  of  an  experienced  teacher. 

The  bowling  green  proper  is  circular  and  120  feet  in  diameter. 
It  is,  of  course,  perfectly  level.  It  is  depressed  2  feet  below  the 
surrounding  terrace,  and  this  depression  adds  much  to  its  ornamental 
appearance.  Of  course  it  will  then  require  drainage.  There  should 
be  an  open  drain  6  inches  wide  and  3  to  6  inches  deep  around  the 
margin,  and  this  drain  should  fall  to  one  or  two  outlets  provided 

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with  catch-basins  through  which  the  water  will  be  carried  by  tiles 
to  a  suitable  outlet.     Or  the  whole  area  may  be  subdrained  by  porus 


lF*teitr 


Fig.  42.    Plan  of  Circular  Bowling  Green 


tile  laid  rather  close  together  and  comparatively  near  the  surface. 
The  design  also  shows  a  walk,  certain  plantings  and  a  summer 

94 


BOWLING    GREEN 


house  or  tea  house.  Such  details  could  of  course  be  varied  to  suit 
the  surroundings  wherever  a  bowling  green  might  be  built.  This 
design  is  taken  from  Kemp's  "Landscape  Gardening." 

As  usually  designed  the  bowling  green  is  exactly  square,  120 
feet  each  way. 

The  horticultural  problem  of  growing  a  close,  hard,  durable 
turf  on  the  bowling  green  is  a  very  pretty  one,  but  it  cannot  be 
discussed  here.  Information  on  this  subject  can  be  found  in  books 
on  golf,  since  the  procedure  is  practically  the  same  as  in  producing 
golf  greens. 


95 


LESSON  25 

Village  Center 

HE  purpose  of  this  exercise  is  to  call  attention  to 
the  very  interesting,  often  very  practical  and 
sometimes  beautiful  arrangement  which  occurs 
in  the  unplanned  growth  of  small  villages,  and 
to  take  up  the  study  of  similar  civic  foci  where 
they  can  be  found  in  the  pupil's  own  neighbor- 
hood. 

Description 

The  plan  here  reproduced  shows  a  village  center  at  Weston, 
Mass.  The  principal  feature  is  that  of  the  beautiful  stone  church 
standing  on  a  moderate  rise  of  land  at  the  junction  of  four  streets. 
These  streets  enter  the  plaza  of  the  town  in  a  very  irregular  manner, 
but  these  very  irregularities  produce  unusually  attractive  street 
vistas,  as  can  be  understood  even  from  the  plan.  The  pupil  is 
urged  to  imagine  what  the  views  would  be  like  from  different  points 
in  these  streets  and  what  sort  of  photographs  would  be  available  from 
different  points  of  view. 

It  is  a  matter  of  interest  to  remember  that  the  church  grounds 
were  laid  out  and  planted  by  the  late  Charles  Eliot,  a  famous  land- 
scape gardener  of  a  generation  ago. 

This  grouping  constitutes  in  effect  a  civic  center,  though  the 
only  public  buildings  here  are  the  church,  the  town  hall,  the  store 
and  post  office. 

Study 

The  pupil  should  copy  this  plan  at  a  scale  of  V  =  20'  though 
the  teacher  may  omit  the  copying  exercise  if  such  a  step  seems 
necessary  in  saving  time. 

96 


VILLAGE    CENTER 


Fig.  43     Village  Center,  Weston,  Mass. 


The  most  desirable  study  to  be  given  to  this  problem  may  be 
found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  school.  If  there  are  neighborhood 
centers,    church    grounds,    schoolgrounds,    street    intersections    or 

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other  foci  of  similar  nature  they  should  be  carefully  studied  and 
mapped.     If  the  different  members  of  the  class  can  secure  such 


Fig.  44.    Village  Center  Looking  North  —  See  Plan 


surveys  from  a  large  number  of  different  points  and  these  surveys 
properly  drawn  out  can  be  exhibited  together  for  comparison  and 
criticism  the  study  will  prove  highly  advantageous. 


LESSON   26 

Well-He  AD 

HIS  lesson  is  intended  to  give  the  student  prac- 
tice in  the  design  of  architectural  details.  Such 
features  have  to  be  provided  in  connection  with 
many  works  in  landscape  gardening.  If  they  are 
large  or  elaborate  they  should  be  designed  by  a 
competent  architect.  If  they  involve  plastic  fig- 
ures or  groupings,  a  sculptor  should  be  em- 
ployed. In  a  large  majority  of  cases,  however,  simple  details  of 
this  character  can  be  worked  out  by  the  landscape  gardener.  Much 
depends  on  his  taste  and  skill  in  placing  such  garden  ornaments, 
in  constructing  them  to  the  most  effective  scale  and  in  making  sure 
that  they  correspond  with  their  garden  surroundings  in  style  and 
treatment. 

Statement 

A  well-head  or  curb  is  required  on  every  well  in  regular  use. 
Perhaps  it  is  true  that  in  a  majority  of  cases,  under  present  day  prac- 
tice, the  well-head  consists  only  of  a  pump  surmounted  by  a  wind- 
mill on  its  tower.  Admittedly  well-heads  of  the  kind  illustrated  in 
the  present  lesson  are  not  now  in  very  general  use.  Nevertheless 
it  is  the  pleasant  fashion  in  many  distinguished  gardens  to  retain 
old  wells  and  to  decorate  them  with  well  designed  curbs.  These 
may  be  designed  in  a  great  variety  of  styles,  a  few  of  which  are 
illustrated  herewith. 

Problems 

The  student  should  first  copy  some  of  the  designs  here  shown. 
Copies  may  be  made  in  pencil  or  ink,  preferably  the  latter,  and 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


m  a 


100 


WELL-HEAD 


Fig.  46.    Perspective  Sketch 

should  show  various  aspects  of  the  subject  under  study,  such  as 
ground  plan,  elevation  and  perspective. 

The  student  should  next  look  up  other  designs  in  other  books. 
He  should  also  explore  the  neighborhood  in  which  he  lives  and,  with 
camera  or  sketch  book,  make  a  record  of  the  various  well-heads 
which  he  finds,  including  installations  of  pumps. 

Lastly  the  student  should  design  one  or  more  well  curbs,  either 
by  revising  examples  discovered  during  his  explorations  or  by  making 
entirely  new  designs.  These  designs  should  be  presented  in  the 
form  of  drawings  similar  to  those  used  in  this  lesson. 


101 


J        ti'mitt 


Fig.  47.    Simple  Rustic  Well-Head 


Fig.  48.    Picturesque  Well-Head 


102 


LESSON   27 

Garden  Seats 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  give  the  student 
further  opportunity  for  the  study  of  architectural 
details  as  used  in  landscape  gardening.  It  is 
expected  that  the  student  will  work  out  a  design 
for  a  garden  seat,  and  the  following  suggestions 
are  intended  to  help  him  in  working  out  his  own 
ideas. 

Illustrations 

Several  garden  gates  are  illustrated  in  Figures  49-54.  The 
one  to  which  the  pupil's  attention  is  first  directed  is  the  drawing, 
Figure  49,  which  shows  a  garden  seat  designed  by  Mr.  Joseph  F. 
Whitney,  landscape  architect.  This  seat  is  to  be  constructed  of 
wood  and  may  be  painted  either  white  or  olive  green. 

The  other  examples  shown  will  supply  various  suggestions  to 
the  student  or  working  landscape  gardener. 

Argument 

It  is  very  important  that  every  garden  should  be  adequately 
and  tastefully  furnished.  A  garden  without  furnishings  is  as  in- 
complete and  unsatisfactory  as  an  unfurnished  house.  The  home 
garden  should  be  built  for  use,  but  it  cannot  be  properly  used  and 
enjoyed  unless  it  has  pleasing  and  comfortable  furnishings. 

Seats,  tables  and  shelters  are  especially  desirable,  though  other 
features  of  interest  should  be  included,  such  as  fountains,  pools, 
bird-baths,  sundials,  gazing  globes,  statuary,  pergolas,  etc.  etc. 
Probably  the  most  important  furnishings  of  all  are  garden  seats  and 
shelters,  and  the  design.  Figure  49,  provides  both. 

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Fig.  49.     Sketch  for  a  Practical  Garden  Seat 

Problems 

The  student  should  first  of  all  make  a  copy  of  the  design  here 
shown  in  Figure  49.  This  figure  is  laid  out  with  a  T-square  and 
triangle  upon  a  drawing  board,  but  the  final  drawing  is  done  free- 

104 


I'lu.  51.     ExctLLEXT  Type  of  Cement  Seat 


TEXTBOOK    OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  52.    Home-made  Garden  Seat  op  Cement 


Fig.  53 


*AKK  Seat 


hand  with  a  pen.  The  student  should  make  his  final  copy  either 
with  pen  or  black  pencil,  preferably  the  former.  Practice  in  the 
presentation  of  such  objects  is  very  desirable. 

106 


GARDEN    SEA  T  S 


The  student  should  next  undertake  an  original  design  for  a 
garden  seat.  He  may  adopt  any  of  the  forms  indicated  herewith, 
though   there   are   many   other  forms   equally   desirable.     Several 


Fig.  54.     Wooden  Park  Bench 

suggestions  can  be  found  in  Mr.  Underwood's  book  mentioned 
below. 

It  will  be  most  desirable  for  the  student  to  undertake  this 
design  for  some  particular  location  in  some  particular  garden.  The 
conditions  thus  known  will  determine  the  measurements  and  general 
style  of  the  seat  to  be  designed.  The  seat  may  then  be  designed  for 
construction  in  wood,  cement  or  other  material. 

Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  it  will  be  possible  for  the 
student  also  to  construct  a  garden  seat  from  his  own  design  or  to 
superintend  such  construction.  The  possibility  of  carrying  out  any 
of  these  designs  should  never  be  overlooked. 

Reference  Readings 

Underwood,  The  Garden  and  Its  Accessories. 
NoRTHEND,  Garden  Ornaments. 


107 


LESSON   28 

Garden  Gate 

HIS  lesson  offers  another  opportunity  for  the  pupil 
to  get  some  experience  in  the  design  of  garden 
details.  Garden  gates  of  one  sort  or  another  are 
desirable  in  many  situations.  Farm  gates  may 
also  be  made  attractive  by  good  proportions  and 
sound  structure  without  any  offensive  "or- 
namental" treatment. 

Illustrations 

Two  designs  for  garden  gates  are  here  shown  (Figures  55  and  56). 
The  first  is  an  elevation  with  structural  cross-section  showing  a 


Fig.  55.     Plain  Gate  of  Matched  Lumber 

simple  gate  in  paneled  wood.  The  second  design  shows  a  more 
elaborate,  though  still  simple  design,  for  a  garden  gate  in  open  wood- 
work with  spindles.  Over  the  gate  is  an  arch  which  sholud  eventu- 
ally be  covered  with  roses,  trumpet  vine  or  other  good  climbing 

plant. 

108 


GARDEN    GA  TE 


Fig.  56.     Sketch  Design  foh  Simple  Garden  Gate  by  Dorothy  Waugh 


Fig.  57.    Old  Fashioned  Wooden  Gate  and  Picket  Fence 
109 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Discussion 

In  all  cases  the  garden  gate  offers  an  opportunity  for  effective 

design.     It  should  be  made  an  interesting  and  attractive  feature. 

Nothing  could  better  illustrate  than  a  gate  problem  of  this  sort 

what  are  the  essentials  of  good  taste  in  design.     The  most  attractive 


Rose  Arch  used  as  a  Garden  Entrance 


gate  is  certainly  not  the  one  which  has  the  most  elaborate,  expensive 
and  fanciful  ornaments.  It  is  rather  one  which  has  good  proportions, 
simplicity,  dignity  and  sound  construction. 

As  will  be  seen  in  these  designs  and  in  the  photographs  and 
sketches  reproduced  in  this  same  chapter  such  a  garden  gate  can 
hardly  be  made  attractive  without  the  liberal  use  of  plants,  —  trees, 
shrubs,  vines,  hardy  perennials.  All  such  materials  combine  de- 
lightfully with  items  of  this  kind. 

110 


GARDEN     GATE 


Problems 

One  or  more  of  these  designs  should  be  copied  at  an  enlarged 
scale.     Such  copies  may  be  made  in  pencil,  crayon,  charcoal  or  ink. 

The  pupil  should  make  a  careful  hunt  throughout  the  neighbor- 
hood for  other  gates,  and  should  make  photographs  or  drawings  of 


Fig.  59.    A  California  Garden  Gate  —  Photograph  by  John  W.  Gregg 

every  one  which  has  any  merit.     A  collection  of  such  sketches  will 
prove  interesting  and  useful. 

The  pupil  should  next  make  one  or  several  designs  for  gates, 
preferably  for  known  surroundings.  These  designs  are  most  easily 
worked  out  as  flat  elevations  to  scale,  but  the  student  should  also 
practice  the  presentation  of  his  ideas  in  perspective  as  shown  in 
Figures  46,  49  and  56. 


Ill 


LESSON  29 

Small  House  Lot 

HE  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  study  a  typical  small 
home  lot.  This  lot  has  a  60  foot  front  and  is  100 
feet  deep.  There  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
home  lots  of  approximately  the  same  dimensions 
in  American  cities  and  towns. 

Problems 

The  pupil  should  copy  this  drawing  at  a  suitable  scale.  If 
time  permits  a  water  color  rendering  may  be  made.  This  is  a  suit- 
able subject  for  practice  with  water  colors. 

The  pupil  may  also  make  a  revised  plan  for  the  same  lot  and 
house. 

It  is  highly  desirable  also  that  the  pupil  make  additional  de- 
signs for  other  grounds  of  similar  character.  Such  work  should 
be  done  as  far  as  possible  upon  existing  examples.  The  grounds 
should  be  surveyed  and  mapped,  existing  conditions  of  soil,  drain- 
age, sunlight,  etc.,  should  be  determined  and  taken  into  considera- 
tion in  making  up  the  design  and  selecting  materials  for  the  plant- 
ing plan.  Such  work,  especially  if  carried  out  under  a  good  teacher, 
may  be  extended  to  an  indefinite  number  of  examples. 

Discussion 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  lot  faces  to  the  north,  giving  the 
house  also  a  north  frontage.  This  orientation  is  commonly  regarded 
as  undesirable  in  American  village  life.  It  is  on  the  contrary  the 
most  desirable  frontage  possible,  unless  the  house  can  be  faced  to 
the  northwest;   but  to  realize  the  value  of  such  a  building  lot  it  is 

112 


I  I  I  I 

O  to  20  JO  40 


^— 1' 


Fig.  60.    Design  for  Small  Home  Grounds 


113 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

necessary  to  depart  from  the  customary  arrangement  in  important 
particulars. 

The  most  important  adjustment  is  in  placing  the  house  as  near 
the  street  as  possible,  thus  greatly  reducing  the  breadth  of  the  con- 
ventional "front  yard,"  and  by  the  same  amount  increasing  the 


Fig.  61.     Front  View  of  House  and  Grounds 


extent  of  the  private  garden  at  the  rear  of  the  house.  This  private 
garden  now  lies  on  the  sunny  south  side  of  the  house  and  may  be 
developed  into  something  much  worth  while. 

The  conventional  floor  plan  here  used  might  be  improved  by 
placing  the  kitchen  on  the  northwest  corner  of  the  house  and  trans- 
ferring the  dining  room  to  the  southwest  corner.  Thus  the  living 
room  and  dining  room  would  get  the  maximum  of  sunlight  and  would 
look  out  onto  the  garden  instead  of  onto  the  street.  Much  depends 
obviously  on  the  habits  and  tastes  of  the  family  occupying  the  house. 

In  front  of  the  house  is  a  small  strip  of  smooth  lawn.  Against 
the  house  are  simple  foundation  plantings.     A  short  straight  walk 

114 


SMALL    HO  USE    LOT 


leads  to  the  front  door,  and  a  narrower  straight  walk  leads  to  the 
service  area  and  kitchen  entrance. 

The  narrow  rectangular  space  directly  east  of  the  house,  which 
is  frequently  left  open  giving  a  vista  looking  from  the  street  deeply 


Fig.  62.    Cozy  Small  Home  Grounds 

into  the  garden  and  grounds  is  here  closed  by  small  gates  supported 
by  plantings  and  a  very  simple  enclosed  formal  flower  garden  with 
bird-bath  is  developed.  This  treatment  works  a  complete  separ- 
ation between  the  front  yard  and  the  private  garden  at  the  rear. 
As  a  rule  American  home  gardens  are  seriously  lacking  in  privacy. 

115 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

The  little  formal  garden  thus  made  constitutes  a  distinct  and  inter- 
esting feature  of  the  grounds.  It  supplies  an  artistic  transition 
from  the  front  yard  to  the  private  garden.  It  is  not  merely  "some- 
thing different,"  but  it  seems  to  fit  naturally  into  its  surroundings. 


Fig.  63.     Dwakf  Fbuit  Trees  are  Suitable  for  the  Small  House  Lot 


The  main  feature  of  the  grounds  is  the  family  lawn  or  garden 
occupying  a  main  portion  of  the  space  immediately  south  of  the 
house.  The  principal  living  room  window  looks  out  across  this 
lawn  to  a  rose  arch  which  forms  a  passageway  into  the  vegetable 
garden  at  the  rear.  The  east  and  west  ends  of  this  garden  are 
bordered  by  hardy  shrubs.  The  south  side  has  a  border  of  flowers. 
At  the  northeast  corner  is  the  only  large  shade  tree  provided  in 
these  small  grounds.  This  may  be  an  oak,  elm,  maple  or  any  other 
deciduous   species   of   good   size   and   dignified   appearance.     It   is 

116 


SMALL    HO  USE    LOT 


placed  southeastward  from  the  house  in  such  a  position  that  its 
shadow  will  be  thrown  upon  the  building  during  the  heat  of  the  day. 
This  design  is  adapted  to  a  practically  level  lot.  Where  con- 
siderable slope  is  found,  either  toward  or  away  from  the  street,  the 
problems  of  architecture  and  garden  design  are  seriously  compli- 
cated, though  very  delightful  arrangements  can  be  secured  if  enough 
competent  study  is  given  to  such  problems. 

Readings 

Rehmann,  The  Small  Place,  New  York,  1918. 

Kellaway,  How  to  Lay  Out  Suburban  Home  Grounds,  New  York,  1907. 

Hamblin,  Book  of  Garden  Plans,  New  York,  1916. 

Root,  Landscape  Garden  Series,  Book  U. 


117 


LESSON  30 

Suburban  Home  Grounds 

HIS  exercise  presents  a  typical  example  of  home 
garden  design  in  which  it  is  the  intent  to  empha- 
size the  fundamental  structural  features. 

Exercise 

All  members  of  the  class  should  copy  this 
drawing  to  a  suitable  scale.  The  drawing,  Figure  64,  presents  the 
plan  in  ink;  in  Figure  65  the  same  plan  is  rendered  in  water  colors. 
The  teacher  will  decide  whether  the  pupils  should  undertake  these 
reproductions  in  one  medium  or  both.  If  the  class  has  time  enough 
on  this  course  it  will  be  well  to  use  both  methods. 

Explanation 

First  we  may  observe  the  orientation  of  the  house,  which  faces 
the  northwest.  This  brings  the  living  rooms  and  principal  bed- 
rooms on  the  southeast  and  southwest  angles  where  they  will  secure 
a  maximum  of  sunlight. 

Next  we  should  consider  the  most  important  feature  of  the 
design  which  consists  in  the  subdivision  of  the  grounds  into  three 
distinct  parts,  based  on  use.     These  parts  are  — 

a.  The  public  portion,  or  front  yard. 

b.  The  private  portion,  or  family  garden. 

c.  The  service  portion,   including  laundry  yard,  garage, 

vegetable  garden,  etc. 
The  front  yard  is  on  the  same  side  of  the  house  as  the  public 
room,  i.e.,  the  front  hall,  with  which  it  directly  connects.     The 
family  garden  connects  directly  with  the  living  room  and  has  the 

118 


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121 


SUBURBAN    HOME    GROUNDS 

same  character  of  private  family  use.     The  service  area  connects 
with  the  kitchen  and  laundry.     These  three  areas  are  somewhat 


Fig.  66.     Cottage  Residence  and  Suburban  Home  Grounds 

distinctly  separated  from  one  another.  The  plan  of  the  grounds 
thus  becomes  structurally  related  to  the  plan  of  the  house.  Both 
plans  are  based  clearly  on  daily  use. 

The  front  yard  is  comparatively  small,  as  the  front  hall  should 

123 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


be.  One  would  hardly  want  his  front  hall  to  be  larger,  better  fur- 
nished and  more  important  than  the  living  rooms  of  his  house; 
yet  on  thousands  of  suburban  grounds  the  front  yard  constitutes 
practically  the  whole  of  the  grounds. 

The  family  garden  in  this  plan  is  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant area.     It  is  enclosed,   being  shut  off  especially  from  the 


Fig.  67.    The  Flower  Garden  is  a  Feature  of  SuBtiRBAN  Grounds 

street.  It  should  have  the  same  privacy  as  the  living  rooms  of  the 
house.  It  should  have  many  attractive  features  such  as  flower 
garden,  pool,  croquet  or  tennis  court,  fruit  trees,  etc.  It  should 
also  be  furnished  for  use,  with  seats,  tables,  shelters.  (The  summer 
house  or  shelter  is  here  shown  between  the  formal  flower  garden  and 
the  main  lawn.)  The  flower  garden  is  shown  enclosed  by  a  hedge 
and  somewhat  formalized,  with  the  main  axis  upon  the  axis  line  of 
the  living  room.  This  is  designed  to  give  a  particularly  effective 
picture  when  viewed  from  the  French  door  and  windows  of  the 
main  family  room. 

Other  features  to  be  noticed  are  (a)  the  large  deciduous  trees 

124 


SUBURBAN    HOME    GROUNDS 

at  the  south  and  west  of  the  house  where  they  will  cast  their  shadows 
on  the  house  walls;  (b)  the  trees  at  the  north  and  northwest  placed 
so  as  to  frame  in  the  view  of  the  house  as  seen  from  the  street;  (c) 
the  bird  garden  which  serves  also  as  a  screen  for  the  service  yard 
and  a  windbreak,  and  which  can  be  seen  from  the  dining-room 
windows;  (d)  the  foundation  plantings;  (e)  the  economical  Y  turn 
for  the  automobile;  (/)  the  inclusion  of  fruit  trees  in  the  garden 
scheme,  where  on  the  south  there  may  be  a  direct  transition  from 
the  family  garden  to  the  orchard. 

Questions 

Why  is  privacy  important  for  the  family  garden?  Does  Ameri- 
can practice  give  less  privacy  to  the  home  grounds  than  is  cus- 
tomary in  England,  Germany,  France  or  Italy?  Are  there  good 
reasons  for  this  difference? 


125 


LESSON  31 

Suburban  Home  Grounds 

HIS  lesson  is  intended  to  give  further  opportunity 
for  the  study  of  the  problem  involved  in  the  de- 
velopment of  home  grounds  —  one  of  the  most 
important  problems  in  landscape  gardening.  The 
solution  for  the  home  grounds  problem  naturally 
varies  greatly  with  varying  physical  conditions, 
and  even  more  with  the  domestic  requirements 
and  tastes  of  different  families.  The  present  problem  should  be 
studied  in  connection  with  other  home  grounds  problems  taken 
up  in  lessons  29,  30  and  32. 

Illustration 

The  plan  shown  in  Figure  68  was  prepared  by  Mr.  0.  C. 
Simonds,*  landscape  architect,  Chicago,  Illinois,  for  a  home  lot  in 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa.  The  tract  is  a  suburban  lot  of  rather  large 
size,  approximately  115  by  270  feet  and  sloping  toward  the  back. 

Solution 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  solution  of  this  problem  is  based 
clearly  upon  the  principles  explained  in  Lesson  30.  The  space 
is  plainly  divided  into  three  areas  (1)  the  public  lawn  or  front 
yard  (2)  the  private  grounds  and  garden,  opening  directly  from  the 
principal  living  rooms  and  comprising  a  sort  of  outdoor  theater 
lawn,  a  flower  garden,  a  formal  garden,  pool,  pergola  and  a  more  or 
less  ornamental  vegetable  garden  (3)  the  service  area  at  the  north- 
west angle  of  the  house  and  connected  directly  with  the  service 

♦Simonds,  Landscape  Gardening,  p.  133,  New  York,  1920. 
126 


so 

3ca/e    tn    Feet 
Fig.  68.     Design  for  Large  Suburban  Lot 


127 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

rooms  of  the  dwelling,  this  area  including  kitchen  yard,  garage, 
automobile  turn,  an  area  for  hot-bed,  compost  heap,  and  other  garden 
and  kitchen  services. 

In  the  present  plan  the  house  has  been  placed  relatively  far 
back  from  the  street,  an  arrangement  justified  by  the  large  size  of 


Fig.  69.    1^'lowebing  Dogwood  on  the  Lawn 


the  house  and  by  the  ample  size  of  the  grounds.  This  gives  space 
for  a  naturalistic  park-like  treatment  of  the  front  yard,  a  treat- 
ment highly  approved  by  American  taste  and  practice. 

The  private  garden  is  worked  out  in  semi-formal  style  on  two 
levels,  the  various  parts  being  compactly  arranged.  This  gives  a  feel- 
ing of  snugness  and  intimacy  desirable  in  every  family  garden  and 
essential  to  the  success  of  a  formal  garden.  It  is  easy  to  imagine 
that  this  garden,  when  fully  developed,  would  yield  a  large  number 
of  very  attractive  photographs.     This  means  that  it  would  present 

128 


SUBURBAN    HOME    GROUNDS 

many  pleasing  views.  Such  a  test  is  highly  appropriate  to  any 
piece  of  landscape  gardening,  especially  to  works  of  this  particular 
sort. 

The  automobile  drive  is  provided  with  a  Y  turn  at  the  garage. 
Next  to  the  house  the  drive  is  widened  on  the  curve.  This  not  only 
makes  the  curve  easier  but  provides  space  in  which  an  automobile 
may  stand  during  the  day  without  blocking  the  passage. 

The  entire  grounds  are  enclosed  by  a  heavy  border  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  the  chief  purpose  of  which  is  to  secure  privacy. 

Problems 

The  pupil  should  copy  this  plan  at  a  suitable  scale,  probably 
1"  =  20'.  The  copy  should  be  made  in  ink.  It  may  be  colored 
with  crayon  or  water-color.  This  is  an  excellent  plan  for  rendering 
in  either  of  these  media. 

Secondly  the  student  may  make  a  new  plan  suggesting  alter- 
native arrangements  for  the  same  house  and  grounds. 

If  proper  supervision  and  criticism  are  at  hand  the  student 
should  make  complete  planting  hsts  for  these  grounds,  specifying 
the  kinds  and  numbers  of  trees  and  shrubs  to  be  used. 

The  student  may  also  work  out  detailed  plans  for  various 
features  in  these  grounds,  especially  the  pergola,  the  pool,  the  garden 
steps  and  wall,  or  even  the  garage. 

This  is  an  important  design  and  considerable  time  can  ad- 
vantageously be  spent  upon  it. 

Reading 
SiMONDS,  Landscape  Gardening,  Chap.  VIII. 


129 


LESSON   32 

Formal  Garden 

HIS  lesson  should  give  the  pupil  an  introduction 
to  the  principles  involved  in  the  design  of  formal 
gardens  and  to  some  of  the  considerations  which 
influence  the  use  of  the  formal  style  in  land- 
scape gardening. 

Definition 

The  formal  style  in  landscape  gardening  is  that  method  of  de- 
sign which  employs  a  geometrical  and  symmetrical  arrangement 
of  parts.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  natural  style  which  employs 
the  forms  and  invokes  the  spirit  of  nature.  Any  definition  of  the 
formal  style  should  include  also  the  idea  that  the  formal  garden  is 
animated  by  a  spirit  entirely  different  from  that  of  the  naturalistic 
garden.  Speaking  broadly  this  is  the  human  spirit  as  contrasted 
with  the  spirit  of  wild  nature.  The  formal  garden  connected  with 
the  private  dwelling  should  be  snug,  intimate,  personal,  inviting  to 
social  loitering,  obviously  the  work  of  human  hands  and  obviously 
intended  for  human  use.  The  large  formal  gardens,  like  those  of 
Versailles  and  of  princely  estates  and  public  grounds  generally,  are 
quite  as  plainly  the  work  of  human  hands  and  as  clearly  intended 
for  human  use,  though  in  this  case  for  the  public  use  of  large  com- 
panies. 

It  is  essential  here  to  observe  that  every  work  of  landscape 
gardening,  if  it  be  in  any  degree  successful,  must  have  both  a  form 
and  a  spirit,  and  that  these  two  must  be  closely  correlated  and  fully 
adapted  to  one  another.  Any  description,  therefore,  of  any  garden, 
or  any  definition  of  any  style,  must  consider  both  its  form  and  its 
spirit.     And  though  spirit  is  hard  to  define  and  hard  to  understand 

130 


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Fig.  70.     General  Plan  for  Formal  Garden 


V 


Fig.  71.     The  House  as  Seen  From  the  Garden 


131 


Fig.  72.     The  Garden  Gate  and  Rose  Arch 


'^^^^^^^^' .-,  • 


Fig.  73.     The  Bird  Bath 


Fig.  74.     The  Garden  Seat 
132 


FORMAL    GARDEN 


it  is  the  more  important  of  the  two,  so  that  a  special  effort  must  be 
made  to  fix  this  quahty  clearly  in  mind. 

Argument 

Much  time  has  been  wasted  in  years  gone  by  in  arguing  that  the 
formal  style  is  better  than  the  natural  style,  or  vice  versa.  Power- 
ful arguments  may  be  made  in  the  abstract  for  either  style;  but 
practically,  as  well  as  from  the  highest  standpoint  of  art,  the  decision 
is  always  to  be  made,  not  on  abstractions,  but  in  view  of  concrete 
conditions  existing  in  particular  instances.  Thus  in  one  set  of  con- 
ditions and  on  a  given  piece  of  property  a  design  in  the  formal  style 
may  have  overwhelming  advantages,  while  on  another  piece  of  land 
and  under  different  requirements  the  natural  style  may  be  clearly 
preferable.  This  principle  is  now  generally  recognized  by  all  com- 
petent landscape  gardeners,  and  controversy  on  these  matters  is 
possible  only  between  persons  of  quite  limited  education  and  narrow 
views. 

Working  Rules 

It  is  always  dangerous  in  art  matters  to  lay  down  dogmatic 
rules.  While  recognizing  these  dangers  it  still  seems  best  to  make 
certain  rules  or  suggestions  covering  the  design  of  gardens  in  the 
formal  style.  These  should  prove  helpful  to  the  beginner,  who  must 
understand,  however,  that  the  experienced  designer  is  sometimes 
able  to  break  some  of  these  rules  without  disaster.  With  such 
limitations  in  mind  the  following  rules  are  offered: 

1.  Formal  gardening  should  be  attempted  only  on  relatively 
small  areas.  For  the  ordinary  family  garden  one-fourth  to  one-half 
acre  would  be  the  maximum  allowance ;  for  a  very  pretentious  private 
mansion  1  to  2  acres;  for  large  public  grounds  3  to  5  acres.  Best 
results  are  usually  secured  on  areas  considerably  smaller  than  these 
maxima. 

2.  The  area  should  be  rectangular  or  nearly  so.  Circular  or 
semi-circular  areas  can  sometimes  be  designed,  but  they  are  difTi- 
cult. 

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TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


3.  The  area  should  be  level  or  nearly  so.     Where  it  slopes  dis- 
tinctly it  should  be  brought  to  two  or  more  levels  by  terracing. 

4.  The  formal  garden  should  be  wholly  and  distinctly  enclosed 
by  buildings,  walls,  hedges,  etc.     Occasional  outlooks  may  be  pro- 


a  u  IMji  e  r 


Fig.  75.     Plan  of  a  Famous  Formal  Garden  in  Massachusetts 

vided  through  or  over  these  bounds,  but  they  must  be  managed  with 
great  skill. 

5.  In  this  rectangular  space  no  definite  proportion  between 
length  and  breadth  is  obligatory,  but  best  j-esults  can  usually  be 
secured  with  a  ratio  about  7:  5  or  8:  5. 

6.  Each  garden  must  have  as  its  chief  structural  feature  a 
major  axis.  This  will  nearly  always  be  developed  on  the  median 
longitudinal  line.  In  exceptional  cases  the  main  axis  may  be  de- 
veloped transversely  to  the  greatest  length  of  the  garden. 

134 


FORMAL    GARDEN 


7.  At  right  angles  to  this  major  axis  a  minor  axis  should  be 
developed.  In  some  cases  two  or  three  minor  axes  are  permissible. 
In  rare  cases  also  the  minor  axis  may  be  merely  indicated  or  entirely 
suppressed. 

8.  The  minor  axis  or  axes  must  be  distinctly  subordinate  to 
the  major  axis  in  all  particulars,  —  in  width,  in  length  (usually). 


Fig.  76.     General  View  of  a  Formal  Garden 


in  interest  and  in  termini  (see  10,  11  and  12).  In  a  garden  having 
several  minor  axes  their  combined  length  should  be  less  than  the 
length  of  the  major  axis. 

9.  Major  and  minor  axes  will  often  be  treated  as  paths.  These 
paths  should  be  nicely  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  gardens. 
As  a  mere  suggestion  the  width  of  the  path  on  the  major  axis  may 

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be  about  10  per  cent  of  the  width  of  the  garden;  that  of  the  minor 
axis  less. 

10.  Each  axis  must  be  provided  with  suitable  termini,  and 
these  termini  must  appear  definitely  at  the  ends  of  the  axes. 

11.  These  termini  must  be  objects  of  definite  interest  and 
beauty.  Those  features  most  commonly  employed  are  fountains, 
sun  dials,  seats,  arbors,  pergolas  (of  doubtful  suitability),  statues, 
tea  houses,  and  small  buildings  generally.  A  broad  outlook  over 
several  miles  of  beautiful  scenery  does  not  terminate  any  axis;  and 
it  is  never  permissible  to  allow  any  axis  to  disappear  into  any  ex- 
terior view. 

12.  These  terminal  features  must  be  carefully  proportioned 
in  size  and  interest  to  the  length  and  importance  of  the  axes  on  which 
they  are  placed.  Roughly  speaking  the  height  of  the  terminal 
features  may  be  10  per  cent  of  the  total  length  of  the  axis.  Fea- 
tures on  the  major  axis  must  be  distinctly  larger  and  more  interest- 
ing than  those  on  the  minor  axis.  In  case  several  minor  axes  are 
developed  their  termini  must  be  plain  and  inconspicuous;  never- 
theless definite  terminal  features  must  be  provided. 

13.  Fountains,  arbors,  belvideres,  etc.,  must  not  be  built  with- 
in the  garden  so  as  to  obstruct  the  general  view.  Under  no  circum- 
stances should  anything  be  built  upon  any  axis  intermediate  be- 
tween the  termini  in  such  a  manner  as  to  interrupt  the  axis  line. 
The  intersections  of  axes  may  often  be  marked  by  pools  of  flat 
water  (not  playing  fountains).  Pools  in  this  position  are  attractive 
on  account  of  the  reflections  they  offer  toward  the  principal  points 
of  view. 

14.  Whatever  treatment  is  given  to  the  free  rectangular  spaces 
outside  the  axes  is  better  applied  to  the  margins  of  such  spaces  than 
to  the  centers.  The  centers  of  such  spaces  should  be  left  free,  or 
at  any  rate  should  not  be  made  sites  for  mass  effects  of  architecture 
or  planting  which  would  compete  in  interest  with  the  axial  termini. 


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FORMAL    GARDEN 


15.  Color  effects,  where  attempted,  are  better  developed  along 
the  boundaries,  in  walls,  hedges  or  border  plantings,  than  in  the  in- 
terior spaces. 

16.  Details  of  architecture  and  sculpture  must  of  course  be 
kept  consistent  throughout  the  garden.  Simple  and  classical  forms 
are  usually  to  be  preferred.  So-called  "rustic"  works  are  seldom 
appropriate. 

Illustration 

Figure  70  represents  a  formal  garden  in  approximately  its 
simplest  terms.  A  dwelling  house  bounds  the  garden  on  the  east 
with  hedges  on  north  and  south  and  a  high  wooden  fence  on  the 
west  end  (Rule  4).  The  major  axis  lies  lengthwise  of  the  garden 
and  the  minor  axis  bisects  this  at  right  angles  (Rules  6  and  7). 
These  axes  are  terminated  by  the  dwelling  house  door,  the  arched 
gateway,  the  bird-bath  and  the  seat  (Rules  10,  11,  13).  These 
terminal  features  are  sketched  in  Figures  71,  72,  73  and  74. 

Another  formal  garden,  a  much  more  elaborate  example,  is 
shown  in  Figure  75.  This  is  the  famous  formal  garden  at  "Faulkner 
Farm,"  Brookline,  Massachusetts,  and  was  designed  by  Mr.  Charles 
A.  Piatt,  of  New  York.  The  main  terminal  feature,  on  the  main 
axis  opposite  the  dwelling,  consists  of  a  beautiful  summer  house 
connected  with  a  pergola  or  peristyle. 

Problems 

The  pupil  should  look  up  other  plans  and  photographs  of  formal 
gardens,  all  of  which  should  be  examined  in  detail  to  see  how  nearly 
they  conform  to  or  how  far  they  depart  from  the  rules  given  in  this 
lesson.  The  pupil  must  of  course  consider  for  himself  how  far  such 
studies  confirm  the  rules. 

The  most  valuable  studies  in  this  lesson,  however,  will  be  possible 
if  the  pupil  is  able  to  visit  one  or  more  formal  gardens,  especially  if 
he  is  so  fortunate  as  to  gain  admittance  to  good  gardens  designed 
by  competent  landscape  architects   and  developed  by  owners  of 

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taste.  If  in  any  manner  possible  such  gardens  should  be  carefully 
surveyed  and  mapped.  They  will,  of  course,  be  tested  by  the  rules 
already  studied. 

Finally  the  pupil  should  design  one  or  more  formal  gardens. 
Purely  imaginary  problems  are  not  without  value;  but  generally 
it  is  much  better  to  make  these  designs  for  known  pieces  of  ground 
and  known  conditions. 


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LESSON   33 

A  Garden  in  the  Natural  Style 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  bring  before  the 
student  the  principles  underlying  the  use  of  the 
natural  style  in  landscape  gardening,  more  es- 
pecially the  use  of  this  style  in  the  small  domestic 
garden. 

Discussion 

The  natural  style  of  landscape  gardening  has  its  most  impor- 
tant application  in  the  preservation  and  development  of  large  areas 
of  natural  scenery  such  as  those  found  in  National  Parks,  National 
Forests,  State  Parks  and  Forests,  large  country  parks  owned  by 
municipalities,  and  grounds  of  large  country  clubs.  It  is  well 
adapted  also  to  the  development  of  large  private  estates,  and  in  a 
more  or  less  modified  form  comes  into  good  use  in  developing  such 
areas  as  college  campuses,  city  parks  and  park  cemeteries.  A  still 
further  modified  naturalistic  or  informal  style  of  landscape  gardening 
may  be  made  entirely  satisfactory  upon  small  home  grounds. 

Americans  and  Englishmen  generally  have  a  strong  and  inborn 
preference  for  this  natural  type  of  scenery  and  for  the  natural  style 
of  landscape  gardening  founded  upon  it.  For  this  reason  the  natural 
style  is  sometimes  forced  upon  land  unadapted  to  it  and  into  an 
environment  better  suited  to  formal  types  of  gardening.  There  is 
also  a  popular  notion  (which  is  very  far  from  the  truth)  that  the 
natural  style  of  landscape  gardening  is  very  easy  to  do.  The  idea 
seems  to  be  that  as  long  as  objects  are  kept  away  from  straight  lines, 
all  walks  are  made  crooked  and  all  plantings  irregular,  the  result  is 
informal  and  must  necessarily  be  natural.  The  fact  is  quite  the 
contrary.     The   truly   successful   piece   of  natural  gardening   arti- 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  77.    Village  Home  Grounds  in  the  Natural  Style 
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A     GARDEN    IN    THE    NATURAL    STYLE 

ficially  accomplished  is  one  of  the  rarest  pieces  of  fine  art  in  existence. 
Indeed  it  requires  high  skill,  hardly  short  of  genius,  simply  to  let 
natural  landscape  successfully  alone. 

Let  the  student  consider  therefore  that  the  natural  style  in 
landscape  gardening  is  not  to  be  lightly  undertaken.  It  is  a  pro- 
found art  and  must  be  studied  long  and  seriously.  Successful  prac- 
tice must  be  founded  upon  a  deep  reverence  and  love  for  the  native 
landscape.* 

Governing  Principles 

Rules  have  only  a  limited  application  anywhere  in  the  fine 
arts.  They  are  especially  dangerous  in  such  a  difficult  and  half- 
understood  art  as  natural  landscape  gardening.  Nevertheless  for 
the  guidance  of  beginners  it  seems  best,  after  emphasizing  these 
limitations,  to  offer  a  series  of  rules  which  will  at  least  stimulate  the 
student's  observation.  The  student  is  therefore  urged  to  follow 
these  rules  carefully  until  he  is  perfectly  sure  of  his  ground  before 
he  adopts  any  contrary  methods. 

Working  Rules 

1.  Every  informal  park  or  garden  should  be  partially  or  wholly 
enclosed  in  order  to  give  it  a  feeling  of  unity  and  sometimes  of 
privacy;  but  this  enclosure  need  not  be  so  obvious  nor  so  complete 
as  in  the  formal  garden.  Good  outlooks  should  be  especially  pre- 
served. The  enclosure  will  be  composed  chiefly  of  borders  of  trees 
and  shrubs. 

2.  The  main  structural  features  will  usually  be  roads,  paths, 
trails,  or  navigable  waters;  and  the  principal  one  of  these  fines  wiU, 
as  nearly  as  practicable,  circumscribe  the  area  under  treatment. 

3.  The  principal  considerations  in  locating  drives,  walks,  etc. 

*  It  is  impossible  in  the  space  of  a  short  chapter  to  expound  fully  this 
natural  style.  The  student  is  urged  to  give  careful  attention  to  the  author's 
larger  work  "The  Natural  Style  in  Landscape  Gardening." 

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will  be  (a)  the  shape  of  the  area,  (b)  topography,  (c)  convenience 
of  travel  between  important  points,  (d)  development  of  views. 

4.  To  secure  unity  of  artistic  effect  a  suitable  motive  or  theme 
should  be  selected  and  should  be  adhered  to  as  closely  as  possible. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  effects  at  variance  with  the  leading 
motive  be  introduced. 

5.  The  successive  episodes  in  the  development  of  this  motive 
will  appear  at  well  marked  points,  which  pojnts  will  all  be  upon  the 
main  structural  roads  or  paths,  thus  developing  the  theme  in  a 
paragraphic  manner. 

6.  The  principal  landscape  effects  will  be  brought  together  at 
these  paragraphic  points.  At  these  points  will  occur  (a)  the  prin- 
cipal changes  in  direction  of  roads  or  paths,  (b)  principal  change  of 
grade,  (c)  change  of  planting,  (d)  principal  interior  or  exterior  views, 
(e)  but  especially  the  culmination  of  the  motive  episode. 

7.  It  is  desirable  to  avoid  the  use  of  straight  lines  and  radial 
curves;  but  awkward,  and  unnatural  curved  or  crooked  lines  musi 
be  equally  avoided. 

Illustration 

The  example  here  offered  shows  a  wild  garden  approximately  120 
X  270  feet  in  size  and  lying  in  a  ravine  at  the  back  of  a  larger 
home  lot.  This  home  lot  is  at  the  top  of  a  bank  southeastward  from 
the  wild  garden  into  which  it  merges. 

This  ravine  has  a  small  running  brook  which  has  been  dammed 
at  the  lower  end  to  form  an  artificial  pool.  This  brook  is  the  leading 
feature  of  the  area  and  naturally  should  be  adopted  as  the  principal 
motive.  The  banks  are  well  set  with  good  native  trees  and  native 
shrubbery.  There  are  also  many  native  wild  flowers,  and  more 
can  be  introduced.  Even  the  marsh  is  a  delightfully  picturesque 
feature  inhabited  by  red-winged  blackbirds. 

The  comparatively  high  wooded  bank  supplies  a  practicable 
enclosure  with  a  sense  of  privacy  and  unity.     (Rule  1.) 

The  main  structural  feature  is  a  walk  which  comes  down  from 

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the  home  grounds,  follows  along  the  sloping  bank  of  the  brook, 
passes  over  the  dam  at  the  foot  of  the  pool  and  returns  to  the  garden 
above.     (Rules  2  and  3.) 


Fig.  79.     Garden  in  the  Natural  Style  —  Jens  Jensen,  Designer 

The  brook  and  its  appendages  have  been  adopted  as  the  leading 
motive  for  this  wild  garden.  The  path  follows  in  general  the  course 
of  the  brook  and  all  the  views  and  all  the  plant  growth  belong 
naturally  to  this  type  of  scenery.     (Rule  4.) 

Six  principal  views  are  shown  at  paragraphic  points  along  the 
principal  walks.     (Rule  5.) 

Problems 

First  let  the  student  copy  this  design  in  pencil  and  crayon  after 
the  manner  shown  in  Figure  92.  He  should  consider  whether  the 
principal  views  have  been  properly  placed,  whether  the  best  views 
have  been  chosen,  whether  any  reconstruction  (such  as  the  draining 
of  the  marsh  or  the  omission  of  the  pool)  might  work  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  plan. 

Next  the  student  should  undertake  to  discover,   define  and 

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A     GARDEN    IN    THE    NATURAL    STYLE 

describe  particular  landscape  motives  in  his  own  neighborhood. 
When  such  a  motive  is  found  the  student  should  then  isolate  several 
episodes  (possible  paragraphs)  showing  various  aspects  of  the  motive. 
This  sort  of  practice  is  suggested  further  in  the  lesson  entitled  "The 
Landscape  Links,"  Lesson  XX,  page  800. 

After  such  preliminary  study  the  student  should  undertake  to 
lay  out  small  tracts  of  land  in  the  natural  style.  First  attempts 
should  be  made  upon  sections  of  natural  landscape  on  which  only 
minor  improvements  will  be  required.  From  such  problems  one 
may  proceed  to  larger  areas,  to  more  varied  topography,  to  more 
complex  motives,  and  to  conditions  where  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  work  has  to  be  done  out  of  hand  —  where  extensive  grading  and 
planting  operations  are  involved. 

As  this  natural  style  covers  so  large  a  part  of  what  is  popularly 
understood  as  landscape  gardening  it  will  be  well  for  the  student 
to  spend  considerable  time  on  this  subject,  working  up  several  prob- 
lems. 

Readings 

Waugh,  The  Natural  Style  in  Landscape  Gardening. 

Downing,  Landscape  Gardening. 

Hubbard  and  Kimball,  Landscape  Design,  Part  IV. 


145 


LESSON  34 

Farmstead  Group 

HIS  lesson  gives  the  opportunity  to  study  the 
economic  and  artistic  grouping  of  farm  buildings. 
The  considerations  here  presented  have  special 
reference  to  conditions  existing  in  the  prairie 
farming  states  of  the  Middle  West,  though  to 
a  large  extent  the  same  principles  should  govern 
the  layout  of  a  farm  group  anywhere. 

Definition 

For  the  purpose  of  this  discussion  a  farmstead  is  understood  to 
be  a  group  of  buildings  used  upon  a  farm,  with  the  adjacent  en- 
closures and  plantings.  These  will  include  farm  dwelling  house, 
barns,  granaries,  house-yard,  barn-yard,  feed-yards,  water  supply, 
etc. 

Illustration 

The  farmstead  here  shown  was  designed  by  Mr.  R.  J.  Pearse, 
landscape  architect,  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  and  executed  for  Mr. 
W.  J.  Osgood  of  Sheldon,  Iowa.  The  following  discussion  of  the 
principles  involved  in  making  such  a  design  is  written  by  Mr.  Pearse. 

Discussion 

The  farmstead  is  the  business  front  of  the  farming  profession. 
It  occupies  less  space,  is  more  expensive  and  more  productive  than 
any  other  part  of  the  farm.  For  that  reason  there  is  a  greater 
chance  for  useless  expenditure  and  diminished  returns. 

As  the  most  expensive  part  of  the  farm,  representing  a  perma- 

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FARMSTEAD    GROUP 


^   I  !Mi|I|J//MK  .  E  V  E  R.  G  KE  E  M    ,   ,11  hi   Wl  nDBBEAK     (  ll'ljl  IS  I   ||1B^|M/| 


W     /-^    /-s   r^    r^    ^.  I R&OOOQOt'^   ^ 


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)     I 


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Graphic     Scale 
Fig.  80.     General  Plan  of  Iowa  Farmstead 

nent  investment,  there  is  all  the  more  reason  for  the  most  careful 
expenditure  of  money  and  the  most  careful  planning  to  reap  the 
greatest  returns.  Farmstead  planning  is  the  scientific  arrange- 
ment of  the  different  parts  which  make  up  the  business  front  of  the 
farm,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  greatest  returns  will  be  shown  in 
the  most  economical  use  of  space,  the  convenience  in  operating  the 

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farm,  and  last,  but  not  least,  the  attractive  appearance  of  the  entire 
layout. 

Some  of  the  most  essential  features  which  must  be  considered 
in  planning  the  location  of  a  set  of  farm  buildings  are  (a)  size  of 
farm,  (b)  farmed  by  tenant  or  owner,  (c)  probable  use  as  stock,  hay, 
grain  or  general  purpose  farm,  (d)  amount  to  be  spent  in  buildings, 
(e)  probable  effectiveness  of  upkeep,  (/)  probable  increase  or  decrease 
in  present  size  of  farm. 

The  first  choice  to  be  made  after  the  general  considerations  are 
in  mind  is  that  of  a  proper  site  for  the  location  of  the  farm  build- 
ings. Because  of  the  close  relation  which  the  farmstead  bears  to 
the  usability  of  the  entire  farm,  the  site  must  be  chosen  with  the 
utmost  care.  This  is  usually  chosen  with  reference  to  the  proximity 
to  town,  school,  church  and  the  administrative  center  of  the  farm. 
The  best  location  is  at  one  side  of  the  center  of  the  farm  and  near 
the  best  public  highway. 

A  farmstead  should  have  proper  air,  light  and  drainage  and  not 
too  much  exposure  to  winds.  South  and  east  slopes  are  the  most 
desirable,  and  a  gravel  knoll  is  best  for  the  location  of  a  farmstead 
because  of  the  advantage  to  be  obtained  by  thorough  drainage  and 
consequently  dry  feed-yards  at  all  times. 

For  the  general  purpose  farm,  the  hollow  square  or  rectangular 
system  of  arrangement  of  buildings  is  the  most  satisfactory.  It  is 
not  unusual  to  find  this  system  used  on  the  farms  of  many  of  the 
best  farmers  who  have  given  a  great  deal  of  thought  and  care  in  the 
planning  of  their  farmsteads.  The  hollow  square  system,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  name,  is  built  up  around  a  hollow  square  or  rectangle 
with  buildings  on  three  sides,  the  fourth  side  opening  upon  a  public 
highway. 

In  this  system  we  have  three  groups  of  buildings  viz :  —  the 
house  group,  the  barn  group  and  the  feed  group,  each  dominated 
by  the  main  building  in  each  group,  the  house,  the  barn  and  the 
elevator.  Standing  in  the  public  highway  facing  the  location  of  the 
new  farmstead,  keeping  in  mind  the  hollow  square  with  buildings 

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should  be  not  less  than  110  feet  wide  by  120  feet  long  parallel  to  the 
public  highway.  The  barn  should  be  located  at  the  end  or  side  of 
this  farm-yard;  in  either  case  it  is  much  farther  from  the  highway 
than  the  house.  If  the  barn  is  at  the  side  of  the  barn-yard  it  should 
be  directly  in  front  of  the  entrance  driveway.  The  end  of  the  barn 
bearing  the  hay  door  should  open  into  the  farm-yard  in  order  to 
avoid  opening  gates  in  putting  hay  in  the  barn.  If  this  door  can 
be  located  on  the  north  or  east  side  of  the  barn  it  is  the  most  desirable 
as  it  avoids  the  hot  sun  on  summer  afternoons. 

The  elevator  or  feed  building  with  its  companion  building,  the 
hog  barn,  might  be  located  at  the  left  side  of  the  farm-yard.  A 
double  elevator  with  a  driveway  passing  through  should  be  so  lo- 
cated that  it  is  possible  to  drive  from  the  fields  between  the  cribs 
or  granaries  without  opening  any  gates. 

A  cement  feed  floor  beside  the  elevator  is  a  feed  saver  and 
is  the  best  location  for  self  feeders,  water  tank,  etc.  A  floor  on  the 
north  side  of  an  elevator  should  be  avoided  because  of  the  ice  and 
snow  which  accumulate  there  in  winter  and  the  dampness  at  differ- 
ent times  of  the  year. 

A  hog  barn  should  be  located  with  direct  access  to  the  cement 
feed  floor,  the  feed  building  and  a  hog  pasture;  and  especially  one 
entrance  door  should  open  out  upon  the  farm-yard  to  avoid  the  useless 
opening  of  gates. 

A  machine  shed  might  be  located  at  the  corner  of  the  farm-yard 
near  the  barn,  and  a  road  to  the  fields  might  lead  between  the  barn 
and  machine  shed,  making  it  easier  to  place  machinery  in  the  shed 
rather  than  in  a  location  at  a  distant  point  of  the  farmstead.  A 
small  service  yard  in  connection  with  the  machine  shed  is  always 
desirable  to  store  wire  fencing,  fence  posts,  old  machinery  and  other 
such  material.  Both  the  garage  and  poultry  house  should  be  lo- 
cated on  the  side  of  the  farmstead  nearest  the  house,  a  door  of  each 
should  if  possible  open  directly  from  the  door-yard  to  give  ready 
access  from  the  house. 

With  the  buildings  located  according  to  these  principles,  it  will 

149 


ERRATUM 

Pages  149  and  150  are  interchanged 


FARMSTEAD    GROUP 


surrounding,  it  would  be  natural  to  locate  the  main  buildings  one 
at  the  right,  one  at  the  left  and  the  third  directly  in  front  of  the  main 
entrance.  For  example  if  the  house  is  at  the  right,  the  elevator  at 
the  left,  the  barn  would  probably  be  directly  in  front.  The  house 
should  naturally  occupy  the  most  advantageous  location,  not  less 
than  100  feet*  from  the  road  and  dominating  the  entire  farmstead 


Fig.  81.     View  from  Main  Entrance 


and  also  the  best  views  along  the  highway.  A  broad  roadway  not 
less  than  32  feet  wide  should  be  the  approach  from  the  highway 
past  the  house  to  the  farm-yard  and  should  not  be  located  less  than 
40  feet  from  the  nearest  side  of  the  house. 

A  door  yard  fence  surrounding  the  house  not  less  than  40  feet 
from  the  side  and  the  rear  marks  the  side  of  the  barn-yard  proper 
or  the  hollow  square  surrounded  by  buildings. 

The  entrance  driveway  will  usually  enter  the  center  of  the 
barn-yard  on  the  side  next  to  the  road.  This  will  locate  the  farm- 
yard regardless  of  its  size.     For  a  quarter  section  of  land,  this  size 

*  This  distance,  viz.,  100  feet,  is  too  great  for  many  farms  in  the 
eastern  States;  also  for  small  farms  in  the  fruit  regions  of  Oregon,  Washington 
and  California.     F.  A.  W. 

150 


FARMSTEAD     GROUP 


be  found  that  in  front  and  at  the  side  of  the  house  opposite  from  the 
farm  buildings  a  lawn  can  be  established  of  reasonable  size.  Between 
the  highway  and  the  barn  and  extending  parallel  to  the  highway  an 
open  area  is  shown  which  has  its  best  use  as  a  show  pasture.  It 
not  only  gives  a  most  desirable  foreground  to  the  buildings,  but  it 
also  may  act  as  a  living  bulletin  board  with  salable  live  stock  pas- 
tured there,  either  for  sale  or  advertising  value  to  be  observed  by 
travelers  along  the  highway. 

Stock  yards  adjacent  to  the  barn  and  hog  barn  should  be  of 
sufficient  size  to  care  for  the  stock  that  is  to  use  them.  They  should 
be  of  easy  access,  convenient  in  feeding,  and  with  convenient  easy 
operating  gates  opening  from  one  to  another.  A  small  farm  orchard 
near  the  machine  shed  and  reasonably  close  to  the  poultry  house  is 
very  desirable.  A  farm  vegetable  garden  should  be  located  near  the 
house  with  one  entrance  gate  leading  directly  from  the  door-yard. 

A  few  well  placed  permanent  shade  trees  should  be  planted  near 
the  house  in  order  to  shade  it  and  the  lawn  but  not  to  obscure  de- 
sirable views  of  the  highway.  A  permanent  evergreen  windbreak 
protecting  the  sides  of  the  farmstead  from  the  prevailing  winds  is 
always  desirable. 

In  general,  farm  buildings  should  be  located  so  their  long  axis 
runs  north  and  south  in  order  to  give  the  best  ventilation  and  san- 
itation by  the  sun  shining  on  either  side  at  different  times  of 
the  day. 

The  following  suggestions  should  be  kept  in  mind  as  necessary 
considerations  in  planning  any  farmstead: 

1.  Entrance  drive  should  strike  at  some  good  building. 

2.  House  itself  should  be  placed  so  that  one  room  at  least  will 
command  the  view  of  the  entire  barn-yard. 

3.  Barn-yard  group  should  be  farther  away  from  the  road  than 
house  group. 

4.  Barn-yard  group  should  be  rectangular  in  form,  with  build- 
ings arranged  around  a  court  with  their  backs  opening  into  the 
several  yards. 

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5.  Feed  buildings  (elevator  or  corncrib),  should  be  placed  be- 
tween buildings  needing  the  feed  for  animals  housed  in  them. 

6.  Water  tank,   machine   shed,   horse   barn   and  entrance  to 
fields  should  be  close  together. 

7.  Barn  should  be  150  feet  or  more  from  the  house. 

8.  Barn  and  hog  house  should  not  be  too  far  from  the  house, 
in  order  to  more  easily  care  for  young  stock  in  cold  weather. 

9.  Ventilation  in  summer  is  just  as  important  as  protection 
in  winter. 


Fig.  82.     View  of  Residence  and  Garage 


Study 

The  pupil  should  give  careful  study  to  the  foregoing  discussion 
in  order  to  understand  clearly  the  reasons  for  each  step  in  farmstead 
planning.  Should  these  studies  be  taken  up  in  any  school  or  college 
where  farm  management  is  also  taught  it  will  be  desirable  to  correlate 
this  lesson  with  the  instruction  given  in  farm  management.  The 
design  of  the  farmstead,  like  any  other  problem  in  landscape  garden- 

152 


FARMSTEAD    GROUP 


ing,  cannot  be  worked  out  unless  all  practical  requirements  are 
fully  met.  Obviously  these  requirements  cannot  be  adequately 
met  unless  they  are  clearly  understood.  In  short  it  will  be  necessary, 
in  order  to  achieve  the  best  results,  for  the  designer  to  have  a  com- 
prehensive knowledge  of  farm  practice.  To  this  he  should  add  an 
equal  understanding  of  the  principles  of  design,  i.e.  the  principles 
of  landscape  gardening. 

Problems 

After  the  pupil  has  completed  the  preliminary  studies  recom- 
mended above  he  should  experiment  extensively  in  the  effort  to 
apply  these  principles  under  different  conditions. 

Problem  1.   The  plan  of  "Welworth"  here  reproduced  should 
be  redrawn  to  a  large  scale,  preferably  \"  =  10'.     This  drawing  may 
be  made  on  cheap  detail  paper  with  coarse  black  pencil  and  may  be 
finished  with  colored  crayons.     Or  it  may  less  desirably  be  drawn 
upon  a  blackboard.     The  large  drawing  is  then  to  be  used  for  pur- 
poses of  critical  discussion  in  which  the  teacher  and  several  pupils 
should  join.     If  one  or  more  practical  farmers  can  be  brought  into 
the  discussions  of  the  regular  pupils  there  will  be  an  added  interest. 
In  this  discussion  every  point  should  be  challenged  and  all 
possible  alternatives  considered.     Questions  like  the  following  should 
be  pressed  home:    Is  the  barn-yard  too  large?     Large  enough?     Is 
the  house  too  close  to  the  road?     Too  far  from  the  barn?     Has  the 
best  location  for  the  garage  been  found?     Has  the  barn  the  best 
possible  orientation?     Will  the  yards  have  proper  drainage?     Etc., 
etc.,  etc. 

Problem  2.  Visit  some  good  farm  and  make  a  detailed  meas- 
ured map  of  the  existing  farmstead.  Draw  this  out  to  same  scale  as 
the  plan  in  problem  1,  in  order  to  facilitate  comparison.  Place  these 
two  plans  side  by  side,  and  consider  in  detail  whether  No.  2  is  better 
or  worse  than  No.  1.  What  are  the  most  palpable  faults  of  No.  2? 
What  alternations  could  advantageously  be  made? 

If  there  are  several  pupils  in  the  class  they  should  map  several 

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difYerent  existing  farmsteads  in  this  way,  and  all  these  various  plans 
may  be  brought  into  this  discussion. 

Problem  3.  Select  a  farm  not  fully  or  properly  equipped  with 
buildings.  After  careful  examination  choose  a  site  for  a  farmstead, 
comparing  point  by  point  the  alternative  possible  sites.  Survey  the 
tract  of  land  thus  chosen,  draw  out  the  survey  to  a  convenient  scale, 
probably  T'  =  20',  and  on  this  survey  design  a  complete  farmstead 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  farm. 


154 


LESSON  35 

New  England  Farm  Group 

HE  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  extend  further  the 
study  of  the  grouping  of  farm  buildings.  In  the 
present  lesson  a  somewhat  different  type  of 
grouping  is  presented,  based  less  on  theoretical 
considerations  than  on  long  practical  experience. 
The  typical  New  England  farmstead  con- 
sists of  a  group  of  buildings  connected  in  a  long 
line  running  east  and  west,  facing  south.  The  dwelling  house  is 
placed  next  to  the  public  road,  back  of  this  comes  a  kitchen  wing, 
then  a  wood-shed,  then  wagon-sheds,  after  which  follow  tool  houses 
and  other  buildings,  the  line  commonly  terminating  with  a  large 
barn. 

Example 

The  example  here  illustrated,  plate  83,  presents  an  actual  sur- 
vey of  an  existing  farm  group  in  Amherst,  Mass.  It  should  be 
studied  in  careful  comparison  with  the  middle-western  farmstead 
illustrated  in  Lesson  34,  and  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
present  layout  represents  a  gradual  development  covering  approx- 
imately 150  years,  whereas  the  farmstead  plan  shown  in  plate  80 
represents  a  modern  plant  built  to  order  under  the  direction  of  a 
trained  landscape  architect.  Even  under  these  circumstances  it 
will  appear  that  this  New  England  layout  is  not  badly  adapted  to 
governing  conditions. 

Discussion 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  dwelling  house' is  placed  much  nearer  to 

the  road  than  recommended  by  Mr.  R.  J.  Pearse  for  Iowa  conditions 

(see  page  149)  and  that  the  entrance  drive  also  runs  much  nearer 

to  the  house. 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


-approx—/^orf/i  - 


Sarnyard 


^S"^-7^ 


Field 


Qarden 


57  R.EE7 


Fig.  83.     Typical  New  England  Farm  Group 


156 


NEW    ENGLAND    FARM    GROUP 

The  entire  arrangement  of  buildings  is  exceedingly  compact, 
thus  securing  some  economies  in  construction  and  much  more  im- 
portant economies  in  handling  the  daily  farm  chores. 

There  are  some  drawbacks  to  this  very  compact  arrangement. 
The  ones  usually  mentioned  are  first  the  additional  risk  of  fire: 
if  a  fire  starts  in  one  building  it  is  almost  certain  to  carry  off  the  en- 
tire group.  A  second  objection  is  that  the  house  is  too  close  to  the 
barn,  so  that  flies  and  the  barn  smells  cause  discomfort  in  the  dwell- 
ing house.  The  latter  objection,  however,  may  be  as  readily  over- 
come in  this  grouping  as  in  any  other. 


FiQ.  84.    View  from  the  South  —  Compare  with  Plan 

Observation 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  primary  line  of  buildings  in  this  case 
has  been  returned  toward  the  south  from  the  barn,  and  that  the 
latest  poultry  house  even  returns  slightly  westward,  thus  breaking 
somewhat  the  original  linear  arrangement  and  approximating  the 
quadrangular  group  recommended  and  illustrated  in  Lesson  34. 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Problems 

If  typical  linear  groupings  can  be  found  in  the  neighborhood 
each  student  should  make  actual  surveys  of  existing  groups.  These 
surveys  should  be  mapped  to  a  uniform  scale  (l''=10'  is  sug- 
gested) and  these  layouts  made  by  different  members  of  the  class 
should  be  exhibited  together  and  criticized  in  detail  in  comparison 
with  each  other  and  with  ideal  standards. 

Class  criticism  should  be  directed  further  to  a  very  thorough 
comparison  of  the  merits  of  the  linear  group  with  the  quadrangular 
group. 

Finally  the  pupil  should  design  one  or  more  entirely  new  groups 
of  farm  buildings  based  on  the  principle  of  linear  arrangement.  If 
possible  these  designs  should  be  made  for  known  farms  where  the 
actual  farming  requirements  are  understood. 


158 


LESSON   36 

Farmstead  Layout 

NE  more  lesson  is  here  given  to  the  subject  of 
farmstead  planning.  In  this  lesson  a  purely  the- 
oretical layout  is  presented.  This  will  enable  the 
student  to  observe  even  more  closely  that  in  the 
two  preceding  lessons  how  the  principles  of  land- 
scape gardening  should  be  applied  to  the  group- 
ing of  farm  buildings. 

Illustration 

The  example  here  illustrated  was  worked  out  by  Professor 
Phillip  H.  Elwood  Jr.,  then  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, now  of  Ohio  State  University.  The  area  represented  is  prac- 
tically level  land,  with  the  public  road  at  the  north  of  the  build- 
ings, an  arrangement  which  is  usually  desirable  in  spite  of  popular 
prejudice  to  the  contrary. 

The  general  plan  of  arrangement  is  that  of  a  rectangle,  as 
recommended  by  Mr.  Pearse  (page  148).  The  dwelling  house  closes 
the  front  of  this  rectangle.  The  main  storage  and  stock  barn  stands 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  quadrangle;  while  minor  buildings  close 
the  eastern  and  western  ends. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  entire  arrangement  is  somewhat 
more  compact  than  the  design  for  "Welworth"  shown  on  page  147. 
Space  is  economized  especially  in  the  grounds  immediately  con- 
tiguous to  the  dwelling  house;  the  house  is  placed  much  closer  to 
the  road  and  the  entrance  drive  much  closer  to  the  house.  Such  an 
arrangement  seems  to  be  more  favored  in  the  eastern  states  at  the 
present  time,  whereas  the  larger  front-yard  as  developed  at  "Wel- 
worth" seems  to  represent  more  nearly  the  popular  ideal  in  the 

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Fig.  85.     Idealized  Farmstead 

middle  west.     Either  disposition  is  perfectly  legitimate  from  the 
standpoint  of  landscape  design. 

The  present  design  shows  the  flower  and  vegetable  garden  ar- 
ranged in  compact  formal  style  at  the  west  end  of  the  house  and 
connected  with  it  by  a  short  path.  Such  an  arrangement  would 
give  a  pleasant  outlook  from  the  house  and  should  prove  an  at- 
tractive feature  on  any  well-kept  farm. 

Problems 

The  student  should  copy  this  design  at  a  scale  of  T'  =  20'. 
The  copy  may  be  made  in  pencil  and  colored  in  crayon,  or  rendered 
in  some  other  medium  if  preferred. 

160 


FARMSTEAD     LAYOUT 


It  is  important  to  compare  this  design  in  detail  with  the  others 
already  presented  in  Lessons  34  and  35  and  to  consider  critically 
the  validity  of  each  suggestion  offered.  For  example,  are  the  milk 
and  cream  rooms  placed  in  the  most  advantageous  position?  Is 
the  woodshed  too  far  from  the  house?  Are  the  laundry  and  laundry 
yard  too  far  from  the  house?  Is  the  area  marked  "play  lawn"  and 
separated  from  the  barn-yard  by  a  hedge  a  practical  feature?  Would 
it  be  better  to  relegate  the  vegetable  garden  to  another  location  on 
the  farm  where  it  could  be  cultivated  with  a  horse  cultivator? 

The  student  should  also  undertake  for  himself  to  work  out 
original  designs  in  this  quadrangular  method.  This  may  be  done 
first  for  purely  imaginary  grounds,  but  it  is  better  finally  to  make 
such  designs  for  given  farms  where  the  topography  can  be  surveyed 
and  all  the  conditions  known. 

Readings 

Roberts,  The  Farmstead,  Chap.  VI. 

Davidson,  Agricultural  Engineering,  Chap.  62. 

Warren,  Farm  Management,  pp.  388-401. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Farmers'  Bulletin,  1132.     Washington,  1920. 


161 


LESSON   37 

Outdoor  Theater 

HIS  exercise  will  give  the  pupil  an  opportunity 
to  learn  something  of  the  design  and  use  of  outdoor 
theaters.  Such  open-air  auditoriums  are  made 
in  a  great  variety  of  styles,  in  all  sizes,  and  are 
used  for  innumerable  purposes,  such  as  giving 
plays,  pageantry,  music,  religious  meetings,  pub- 
lic speaking,  movies,  vaudeville,  etc.,  etc. 

Discussion 

The  simplest  outdoor  theater  is  found  where  the  boy  scouts  sit 
round  in  a  circle  while  the  scout  master  stands  in  the  center  to  ad- 
dress them.  From  this  point  upward  the  idea  may  be  elaborated 
to  any  extent,  some  of  the  notable  examples  being  the  college  stadi- 
ums, like  the  Yale  "Bowl,"  which  has  been  used  for  music  and 
pageantry  as  well  as  for  great  spectacles  of  football;  the  beautiful 
high  school  "Bowl"  in  Tacoma,  Washington,  and  the  famous 
*' Greek"  theater  at  the  University  of  California. 

Outdoor  meetings  are  very  common  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
but  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  these  are  held  in  improvised 
surroundings  —  a  few  planks  laid  across  boxes  under  the  trees  with 
a  bigger  box  to  serve  as  a  rostrum  for  the  speaker.  Now  the  proper 
procedure  in  landscape  gardening  is  to  provide  comfortable  and 
beautiful  surroundings  to  meet  the  needs  of  these  gatherings  rather 
than  to  build  some  elaborate  theater  and  afterward  try  to  invent  a 
use  for  it.  Of  course  a  theater  once  built,  if  it  is  suitable  and  ap- 
pealing, will  create  new  demands.  There  will  be  more  outdoor 
concerts,  more  open-air  church  services,  more  grange  picnics,  more 
neighborhood  reunions. 

162 


OUTDOOR     THEATER 


The  following  suggestions  as  to  the  design  of  outdoor  theaters 
are  condensed  from  the  author's  work  on  this  subject.* 

Size:  Generally  speaking  the  outdoor  theater  ought  to  be 
large  or  small,  one  or  the  other.  The  football  stadium  has  to  be 
large  enough  to  accommodate  thousands  of  visitors;  a  theater  for 
pageants  must  also  be  made  on  a  large  scale.  But  for  small  plays, 
for  music  and  for  public  speaking  the  outdoor  theater  may  easily 
be  too  large.     For  these  latter  requirements  it  should  be  as  small. 


Fig.  86.     Outdoor  Theater  at  Anoka,  Minn. 

compact  and  intimate  as  possible.  Rarely  should  it  be  designed 
to  seat  more  than  500.  If  200  auditors  are  well  cared  for  it  will 
be  even  better. 

Enclosure:     Every  outdoor  theater  ought  to  be  fully  enclosed, 
preferably  by  trees  and  shrubs  or  by  hedges  of  greenery.     Bound- 
aries of  dressed  and  painted  lumber  or  of  stucco  or  brick  can  be  made 
attractive  if  well  designed  and  especially  if  well  covered  with  vines. 
*  Waugh,  "  Outdoor  Theaters,"  Boston,  1917. 
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Orientation:  It  is  best  to  have  the  main  axis  of  the  theater 
run  approximately  north  and  south  with  the  stage  at  either  end  of 
this  axis. 

Locations:  Large  theaters  and  football  stadiums  must  be  in 
the  open  and  preferably  on  level  land.  Rarely,  as  at  Tacoma, 
Washington,  can  advantage  be  taken  of  a  hillside  to  make  a  thor- 
oughly satisfactory  stadium.  Small  theaters  should  be  made  under 
trees  in  nearly  all  cases.  "Natural  amphitheaters"  of  which  one 
often  hears  are  really  quite  common.  They  can  be  found  in  almost 
every  neighborhood,  and  they  should  be  utilized  wherever  possible 
as  sites  for  further  elaboration. 

Seats:  There  has  been  a  wild  fashion  in  America  for  fitting  all 
stadiums  and  outdoor  theaters  with  cement  seats.  Now  a  cement 
seat  is  intolerable  for  purposes  of  sitting  down.  Wooden  seats  must 
always  be  built  on  top  of  the  cement.  This  raises  the  question 
whether  it  is  not  much  better,  at  least  in  small  theaters,  to  build 
wooden  seats  in  the  first  place.  In  some  places  chairs  may  be 
brought  out  when  needed.  In  many  instances  temporary  and  move- 
able planks  make  the  most  practicable  seats. 

The  Stage:  The  stage  should  be  as  simple  as  possible,  usually 
level;  and  not  too  large.  It  should  be  closed  at  the  back  and 
framed  in  at  the  two  sides  by  trees,  pillars,  or  by  some  similar  means. 
Convenient  exits  and  entrances  should  be  found,  and  dressing  rooms 
must  be  considered. 

Lighting:  Electric  lighting  is  the  simplest  method  almost 
everywhere,  but  by  no  means  the  best,  especially  if  the  usual  in- 
candescent bulbs  are  strung  in  sight  of  the  spectators.  If  "flood 
lights"  thrown  from  concealed  sources  can  be  installed  the  outdoor 
effect  is  better  preserved.  But  incandescent  light  bulbs  out  of 
doors  are  a  highly  artificial  anomaly  and  tend  powerfully  to  destroy 
the  very  illusions  which  we  are  striving  to  create.  Open  blazing 
flambeaux,  kerosene  or  gasolene  torches,  are  much  better.  Good 
moonlight  is  best  of  all,  at  least  for  musical  programs. 

164 


OUTDOOR     THEATER 


REMOVABLE 
FLOWER. 


W      A         L       K 


ANORA      OPEN     AIR.       THEATRE 


Fig.  87.  Plan  of  Outdoor  Theater  in  Anoka,  Minn. 


Illustration 

The  outdoor  theater  here  illustrated  was  designed  by  Purcell 
and  Elmslie,  architects,  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  and  built  at  Anoka, 
Minn.,  in  1915.  It  is  pictured  and  described  in  the  book  on  "Out- 
door Theaters"  already  mentioned. 


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Problems 

The  pupil  should  copy  the  drawing  here  used.  The  copy  should 
be  in  ink  at  a  scale  of  1"  =  10'. 

Next  an  original  design  should  be  made  for  a  small  outdoor 
theater.  A  suitable  site  should  be  chosen,  and  to  this  choice  of  site 
much  study  may  well  be  given.  Attention  should  next  be  given  to 
the  uses  to  which  the  finished  theater  may  be  devoted.  When  these 
purposes  are  clearly  in  view  and  all  the  physical  conditions  fully 
understood  and  a  survey  made  of  the  ground,  the  design  may  be 
worked  out.  All  details  of  grading,  planting,  stage,  furnishings, 
seating,  lighting,  etc.,  should  be  fully  developed. 

Readings 

"Open-air  Theaters,"  Independent,  64  :  1362,  June  11,  1908. 
"Beauty  in  Outdoor  Drama,"  illus.     Craftsman,  18  :  570,  Aug.,  1910. 
Mackaye,    Outdoor   Plays   and    Pageants,    illus.     Independent,    68  : 

1227,  June  2,  1910. 
Row,   Open-air  Theaters  in  America.     Harpers   Weekly,  illus.,   Oct. 

4,  1913. 
Stoll,  Where  Theaters  are  Out-of-Doors,  illus.    Tech.  World.,  20  :  403, 

Nov.  1913. 
"Theaters  Roofed  by  the  Stars,"  illus.     Lit.  Digest,  47  :  20,  July  5, 

1913. 
Hubbard,   Italian  Garden  Theaters,  Landscape  Architecture,  4  :  53, 

1914. 
"Garden  Theaters,"  illus.     Country  Life  Am.,  27  :  43,  1915. 
Waugh,  Some  Garden  Theaters,  illus.     Architectural  Review,  4  :  161, 

Sept.,  1916. 
Waugh,  Outdoor  Theaters,  illus.,  pp.  151,  Boston,  1917. 


166 


LESSON   38 

Church  Grounds 

HIS  exercise  presents  another  type  problem  in 
landscape  gardening  as  applied  to  civic  improve- 
ment. The  student  should  get  some  practice  in 
drafting  from  this  lesson,  but  his  attention  should 
be  turned  chiefly  to  the  principles  on  which  an 
existing  design  has  been  revised. 

Illustration 

The  drawing  herewith  presented  shows  a  design  for  the  improve- 
ment of  existing  church  grounds.  The  present  layout  may  be  seen 
in  the  paced  survey  shown  on  page  32,  and  that  survey  must  be 
consulted  in  the  study  of  the  present  lesson.  In  the  existing  layout 
two  serious  defects  appear  (1)  the  entrance  is  irregular,  blocked, 
"Wind;"    (2)  the  plantings  are  scattered,  miscellaneous  and  aimless. 

The  front  door  of  the  church  is  not  now  visible  from  the  street, 
but  is  hidden  behind  high  and  dense  shrubbery,  and  the  approaches 
are  crooked,  unsymmetrical  and  ugly.  A  stranger  would  hardly 
find  his  way  into  this  church  without  a  guide,  whereas  the  church 
would  like  to  appear  particularly  inviting. 

In  the  revised  plan  the  front  porch  and  door  have  been  opened 
to  full  view.  The  large  (existing)  elm  in  the  center  is  high-branched 
and  does  not  in  the  least  obscure  this  view. 

A  main  feature  of  the  new  plan  is  a  large  paved  concourse  in 
front  of  the  porch.  Seats  are  set  along  the  margins  of  this  concourse. 
The  purpose  of  this  feature  is  to  invite  everyone  to  linger  for  a  few 
sociable  moments  with  friends  either  entering  or  especially  on  leaving 
church. 

The  broad  plaza  and  broad,  direct  walks  are  expected  to  open 

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168 


CHURCH    GROUNDS 


the  way  widely  to  the  church;   to  make  it  easy  for  strangers  to  find 
their  way  in. 

The  plantings  about  the  church  yard  have  been  grouped  and 

simplified.       The     con-      -..  ..^|p^^^^         ..  ^^ 

course  is   supported  on      wiiiiiiniililiwli  li^.  *  H  v^     - 

the    sides    with    masses 

of  dense,  neat  shrubbery,      Hteiii^jmn'lK&JW^^. 

including  deciduous  and 

evergreen  species. 

Problems 

This  plan  should 
first  be  redrawn  on  a 
scale  of  1"  =  20'.  This 
drawing  should  be  in 
ink,  or  may  be  rendered 
in  water  color. 

The  student  should 
then  make  a  paced 
survey  of  some  neigh- 
boring church  grounds, 
and  on  the  basis  of  such 
survey  should  prepare  a 
plan  of  improvement. 
This  plan  should  be  as 
simple  and  direct  as 
possible.     It  should  be  drawn  in  ink  at  a  scale  of  1"  =  20'. 

The  several  members  of  a  class  should  generally  cover  several 
church  yards  in  these  studies.  The  resulting  improvement  plans 
should  be  brought  together  for  comparison  and  criticism. 


Fig.  89.     Chuhch  Guounds  —  Existing  Entrance 


169 


LESSON   39 

Railroad  Station  Grounds 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  exhibit  the  prob- 
lems which  arise  in  the  layout  of  the  grounds 
about  the  average  rural  railroad  station  and  to 
present  some  of  the  considerations  upon  which 
a  solution  of  these  problems  may  be  based. 


"^ 

Discussion 

The 

average 

rural  railway  station   grounc 

the  following  units : 

(1) 

Tracks 

(2) 

Sidings 

(3) 

Station  buildings 

(4) 

Platforms 

(5) 

Vehicle  approaches 

(6) 

Foot  approaches 

(7) 

TrafTic  space 

To  these  may  be  added  in  special  cases  various  other  items  such 
as 

(8)  Separate  freight  station 

(9)  Water  tank 

(10)  Coal  bunkers 

(11)  Cattle  yards 

Every  satisfactory  station  grounds  also  has  some  relief  of  trees 
and  shrubs,  grass  or  parkings.  In  securing  a  satisfactory  effect, 
from  the  standpoint  of  civic  art,  these  ornamental  features  are 
highly  important 

170 


RAILROAD     STATION    GROUNDS 

Structural  Design 

It  is  evident  that  these  various  units  can  be  arranged  in  an  in- 
finite variety  of  combinations.  Obviously  the  simplest,  most 
straightforward,  most  logical  arrangement  is  to  be  desired. 


Fig.  90.    Well-Treated  Railroad  Station  Grounds 

It  seems  clear  from  an  examination  of  hundreds  of  examples 
that  no  general  type  of  plan  exists,  at  least  in  the  eastern  states. 
It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  railroads  would  have  stand- 
ardized the  plans  of  their  rural  station  grounds.  It  seems  that 
none  of  the  eastern  railroads  has  done  anything  of  this  sort,  but  by 
no  means  clear  that  such  a  standardization  of  station  grounds  plans 
would  not  be  preferable  to  the  hap-hazard  developments  of  the 
past.  It  would  seem,  however,  to  the  average  landscape  architect 
that  still  better  results  could  be  secured  by  a  careful  study  of  each 
case  on  its  own  merits.  Such  study  would  begin  with  a  consider- 
ation of  local  geography,  specifically  with  the  problem  of  adjusting 

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the  station  grounds  to  the  adjoining  streets  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
the  station  most  readily  accessible  from  business  districts,  resi- 
dence sections,  and  surrounding  farming  country. 


NPi^^t^^    BozEMAM    Mont- 


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febru 


Qfv     iflH- 


FiG.  91.     Simple  Layout  op  Railroad  Station  Grounds 

Next  there  should  be  considered  questions  of  local  topography 
in  order  that  the  whole  design  may  be  properly  fitted  to  the  land. 

There  would  then  be  considered  the  architectural  character  of 
the  station  building.  This  should  be  simple,  and  the  coloring  should 
be  in  a  quiet  neutral  tone. 

Lastly,  but  by  no  means  least,  should  be  considered  the  orna- 

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RAILROAD     STATION     GROUNDS 

mental  treatment  of  the  grounds.  The  importance  of  these  grounds 
is  readily  conceded  when  we  consider  the  civic  character  of  the 
railway  station  as  a  principal  community  entrance.  The  railway 
station,  being  the  front  door  to  the  neighborhood,  should  have  the 
same  artistic  quaHties  as  the  front  door  of  a  public  building  or  private 
residence.     Briefly  stated  these  requirements  are  as  follows: 

(1)  Practicable  traffic  connections 

(2)  Orderly  arrangement 

(3)  Cleanliness 

(4)  Dignity 

(5)  Hospitality 

In  short,  the  station  grounds  are  to  be  made  inviting.  To 
give  them  the  required  dignity  and  attractiveness  some  use  of  trees 
and  grass  is  to  be  strongly  urged.  Any  elaborate  gardening  with 
tender  herbaceous  stock  is  generally  inappropriate  at  a  rural  rail- 
way station  where  practically  no  funds  are  available  for  mainten- 
ance. It  may  be  doubted  whether  plantings  of  shrubbery  are 
desirable  unless  some  definite  provision  can  be  made  for  up-keep. 

In  general  the  great  need  in  the  design  of  rural  station  grounds 
if  for  an  orderly  and  logical  arrangement  of  the  various  units. 

Illustrations 

The  examples  here  reproduced  are  drawn  from  paced  surveys 
of  existing  railway  grounds. 

Problems 

The  pupil  should  redraw  one  of  these  plans  in  ink  at  a  scale  of 
1"  =  40'.  This  will  give  opportunity  for  a  more  careful  consider- 
ation of  the  problems  involved. 

Next  the  pupil  should  make  a  paced  survey  and  map  of  some 
rural  or  suburban  station  grounds  somewhere  in  his  own  neighbor- 
hood. If  there  be  a  class  of  several  members  as  many  different 
grounds  should  be  surveyed  as  can  be  reached.     A  comparison  of  the 

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RAILROAD     STATION     GROUNDS 

way  in  which  problems  have  been  met  in  different  places  should 
prove  interesting  and  instructive,  and  for  that  purpose  the  surveys 
collected  by  the  members  of  the  class  should  be  brought  together 
for  exhibition  and  discussion. 

Next  the  pupil  should  undertake  the  revision  and  improvement 
of  plan  for  some  existing  station  grounds  where  he  is  personally 
acquainted  with  conditions. 

Lastly,  if  time  permits,  the  pupil  should  attempt  an  ideal  lay- 
out such  as  might  be  adopted  as  a  standard  by  a  railway  company. 


177 


LESSON  40 

CouRT-HousE  Square 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  indicate  the  most 
effective  lines  of  development  in  a  court-house 
square,  a  civic  feature  of  large  importance  in 
county  seat  towns,  especially  in  the  south  and 
middle  west. 

Discussion 

The  court-house  square  usually  occupies  a  central  position  in 
the  town,  and  the  court-house  itself  is  apt  to  be  the  largest  and  most 
important  public  building.  The  court-house  square  thus  becomes 
the  focus  of  civic  interest  —  a  genuine  civic  center. 

The  grounds  in  the  court-house  square  will  necessarily  be  rela- 
tively small.  This  results  primarily  from  the  heavy  pressure  of 
commercial  interests  on  the  four  sides  of  the  square,  since  as  a 
rule  the  most  valuable  business  locations  are  those  immediately 
fronting  upon  the  court-house.  The  actual  and  apparent  size  of 
the  grounds  are  still  further  diminished  by  the  large  mass  of  the 
court-house  building. 

It  sometimes  happens  also  that  other  buildings  are  put  upon  the 
court-house  square,  such  as  a  jail  or  a  library.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment must  always  be  considered  objectionable.  Such  other  build- 
ings break  up  the  ground  and  detract  from  the  dignity  of  the  central 
court-house. 

On  account  of  the  smallness  of  the  grounds  and  the  predom- 
inance of  straight  lines  in  the  vicinity,  a  definitely  formal  treatment 
of  the  open  spaces  is  strongly  suggested.  Good  landscape  gardening 
would  undoubtedly  lead  in  this  direction.  The  public  taste  for  a 
more  natural  style  is  so  strong  however,  and  the  popular  ignorance 

178 


COURT-HOUSE     SQUARE 


of  the  formal  style  so  great,  that  the  prevailing  tendency  is  strongly 
established  toward  a  park-like  treatment.  This  park-like  treat- 
ment in  its  best  form  involves  the  following  features: 

1.  Rather  extensive  plantings  of  hardy  native  deciduous  shade 
trees.  These  should  be  placed  around  the  borders  of  the  lot,  the 
spaces  in  the  center  and  about  the  building  being  left  free  of  trees. 

2.  Development  of  good  lawn  areas.  Such  lawns  can  be  es- 
tablished only  where  the  ground  is  free  of  trees. 

3.  Foundation  plantings  of  hardy  shrubbery  and  evergreens 
about  the  building. 

4.  The  placing  of  attractive  lawn  benches  at  appropriate 
points,  especially  along  the  marginal  sidewalk  under  the  shade 
of  trees  and  facing  the  walk. 

5.  The  exclusion  from  the  grounds  of  trite  and  silly  "orna- 
mental features,"  such  as  cast-iron  statuary,  memorial  statues  of 
local  heroes,  antiquated  artillery,  unnecessary  fountains,  pattern 
flower  beds,  and  all  similar  rubbish  so  dear  to  the  heart  of  the  av- 
erage court-house  janitor,  the  sheriff  and  the  board  of  county  com- 
missioners. 

6.  Walks  should  be  direct  from  the  court-house  entrances  to 
the  principal  traffic  points.  These  principal  traffic  points  are  nearly 
always  at  the  corners  of  the  square,  so  that  a  system  of  diagonal 
walks  is  almost  necessary. 

Illustration 

The  example  here  reproduced  is  a  typical  court-house  square 
from  Marshalltown,  Marshall  County,  Iowa,  and  is  drawn  from  a 
survey  by  Professor  Frank  H.  CuUey,  landscape  architect. 

Problem 

If  the  student  has  time  he  should  first  redraw  the  plan  of  the 
Marshalltown  court-house  square  as  here  shown. 

The  next  step  must  be  to  survey  the  nearest  court-house  square 
and  present  the  findings  in  the  form  of  a  drawing  similar  to  that 

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COURJ    HOUSE    SaUARE     MARSHALLTOWN 

FRANK  H    CULLEY        LANDSCAPE    AR^HT      FEB   1916 


lA 


Fig.  93.     Typical  Court-house  Square 
180 


COURT-HOUSE     SQUARE 


shown  in  Figure  93.  The  layout  thus  discovered  should  be  criti- 
cized in  detail  as  to  location  of  walks,  character  of  plantings,  po- 
sition of  benches,  condition  of  lawn,  and  all  other  features.  Such 
criticism  should  be  constructive,  showing  how  better  results  could 
be  achieved. 

Finally  the  student  should  prepare  an  improvement  plan,  prefer- 
ably based  upon  the  survey  already  made,  showing  how  an  ideal 
court-house  square  should  be  developed  under  the  circumstances 
thus  made  known. 

Questions 

1.  When  a  court-house  and  grounds  are  outgrown  how  can 
extensions  or  enlargements  be  made? 

2.  How  might  this  exigency  be  provided  for  if  it  were  foreseen 
from  the  beginning? 


181 


LESSON  41 

Town  Common 

HE  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  study  the  town 
common,  a  civic  feature  of  first  importance  in 
New  England  villages.  It  is  desirable  to  know 
something  of  its  history  and  uses  in  order  that 
appropriate  plans  may  be  made  for  its  present 
improvement.  We  should  also  have  in  mind  the 
possible  development  of  the  same  idea,  perhaps 

with  some  modifications,  in  other  parts  of  the  country  and  in  new 

communities  now  building. 

General  Discussion* 

One  of  the  most  pleasing  features  of  the  New  England  village 
is  the  town  common.  It  is  also  one  of  the  most  characteristic,  for 
while  there  are  "court-house  squares"  and  "parks"  in  most  of  the 
southern  and  mid-western  towns,  these  are  physically  and  politically 
very  different  from  the  New  England  town  common. 

Public  interest  in  the  common  may  be  safely  reckoned  on  in 
every  New  England  town.  As  the  village  is  the  center  of  com- 
mercial and  social  intercourse,  so  the  common  is  the  center  of  civic 
interest.  Village  improvement  nearly  always  begins  with  the  towu 
common. 

Historical  Notes 

Existing  town  commons  are  mostly  rather  old  —  at  least  not 
of  recent  origin.     The  purposes  for  which  they  were  set  aside  have 

*  This  discussion  is  revised  from  a  bulletin  by  the  Author,  "The  Town 
Common,"  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Extension  Bulletin  7,  June, 
1916. 

182 


TOWN    COMMON 


now  generally  disappeared,  and  may  be  entirely  forgotten.  In 
a  number  of  instances  they  were  simply  common  pasture  lands  on 
which  livestock  could  be  kept,  and  especially  on  which  the  live- 
stock might  be  assembled  at  night  so  that  they  would  not  be  run 
off  by  the  Indians.  The  idea  of  providing  a  central  parcel  of  ground 
for  such  common  use  was  undoubtedly  the  primary  purpose  in  a 
large  number  of  cases. 

A  little  later  came  the  use  of  the  common  as  a  military  drill 
ground.  Military  service  was  practically  universal  and  military 
practice  frequent.  On  training  days  the  common  was  the  center 
of  animated  doings.  Add  a  lot  of  gay  flirtation  and  hard  drinking 
to  the  military  manoeuvres  and  the  picture  gains  in  truth  and  com- 
pleteness. This  use  of  the  town  common  diminished  rapidly  after 
1812,  but  was  revived  again  in  some  places  in  1861. 

Historically  the  next  use  to  which  town  commons  was  generally 
given  was  the  local  fair  or  cattle  show.  In  a  very  few  instances 
the  annual  fair  still  uses  the  common,  though  under  increasing 
protest. 

At  the  present  time  public  sentiment  has  quite  other  ideals  as 
to  the  purpose  of  the  common,  though  these  ideals  are  seldom  as 
clearly  formulated  as  might  be  desired.  The  common  is  understood 
to  be  a  sort  of  sacred  ground,  though  nobody  may  be  able  to  tell 
why  nor  for  just  what  uses  it  is  reserved. 

First  of  all  the  modern  town  common  is  a  civic  beauty  spot. 
Nothing  adds  charm,  dignity,  and  distinction  to  the  New  England 
town  more  emphatically  than  a  good,  well-kept  common.  While 
many  persons  affect  an  attitude  of  indifference  to  a  mere  question 
of  looks,  all  good  citizens  really  have  a  very  substantial  pride  in 
such  matters.  Everybody  likes  to  have  his  home  town  appear  to 
good  advantage  in  the  eyes  of  visitors,  and  indeed  most  men  and 
women  find  for  themselves  a  real  personal  satisfaction  in  the  at- 
tractiveness of  their  home  surroundings. 

The  common  has  become,  in  a  majority  of  towns,  a  modern 
civic  center.     The  principal  civic  buildings,  such  as  the  town  hall, 

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the  popular  churches,  the  library,  the  school,  the  grange  hall,  the 
post  office  and  the  stores,  front  upon  it.  This  grouping  of  public 
and  semi-public  buildings  within  a  single  view  and  fronted  by  an 
open  space  of  grass  and  trees  is  precisely  the  arrangement  best  cal- 
culated to  give  the  finest  possible  effect.  At  the  same  time  it  con- 
tributes best  to  practical  convenience. 

The  practical  purpose  of  the  town  common  in  present  times  is, 
therefore,  to  beautify  and  dignify  the  civic  center,  as  well  as  to 
make  it  more  convenient.  As  far  as  practicable  all  the  important 
public  buildings  should  face  on  this  open  space.  In  a  few  (mostly 
quite  rural)  towns  the  common  is  now  used  as  a  public  playground. 
It  may  even  support  a  full-sized  baseball  diamond.  While  it  is 
certainly  better  to  permit  play  on  the  town  common  rather  than 
to  make  no  provision  whatever  for  it,  this  is  quite  as  certainly  not 
the  best  arrangement,  either  for  the  playground  or  for  the  common. 

Typical  Forms 

Looking  over  any  considerable  number  of  town  commons  we 
see  that  they  have  developed  chiefly  in  three  principal  forms.  The 
first  and  most  frequent  is  the  triangular  type,  formed  between  the 
branches  of  two  converging  roads.  The  second  is  the  quadrangular 
type,  with  more  or  less  definite  right  angles,  formed  between  four 
intersecting  streets.  The  third  is  constituted  of  a  wide,  long  street, 
having  rather  indefinite  termini.  The  famous  streets  of  Old  Hadley 
and  Northfield,  Mass.,  are  good  examples  of  the  last-named  type, 
which  is  more  frequent  than  is  generally  supposed. 

These  old  commons  vary  considerably  in  size,  running  from 
one-quarter  acre  up  to  eight  or  ten  acres.  The  triangular  ones  are 
usually  the  smaller.  Two  to  four  acres  may  be  considered  typical 
and  satisfactory.  Less  than  two  acres  is  inadequate,  —  more  than 
four  is  seldom  put  to  effective  use. 


184 


TOWN     COMMON 


Modern  Treatment 

Any  appropriate  treatment  of  the  town  common  must  develop 
from  its  present  purpose  and  modern  uses.  If  it  is  to  be  used  for 
cattle  shows  or  military  drills  there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  model- 
ing the  common  to  meet  these  requirements.  If,  however,  the  much 
more  usual  purpose  prevails  of  keeping  the  common  as  a  civic  center 
for  the  sake  of  the  beauty  and  dignity  which  it  may  add  to  the 
community,  a  different  method  of  treatment  is  desirable.  This 
treatment  for  what  must  be  considered  the  typical  town  common 
may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows: 

1.  Buildings  of  every  sort  must  be  kept  off  the  common.  There 
is  a  constant  demand,  especially  where  a  large  common  exists,  for 
the  location  of  some  public  building  within  the  open  space.  First 
it  is  a  high  school,  then  it  is  a  library,  or  it  may  be  a  town  hall  or 
even  a  post  office,  which  is  seeking  a  location.  Everybody  can  see 
that  the  proposed  building  would  look  well  on  the  town  common, 
while  few  people  stop  to  think  that,  after  the  erection  of  one  or  two 
such  buildings,  there  is  no  common  left.  The  only  way  to  have  both 
the  common  and  the  buildings  is  to  place  the  buildings  somewhere 
else.  The  ideal  location  for  good  public  structures  is  facing  the 
common  —  never  upon  it.  This  rule  is  positive  and  admits  of  no 
exceptions,  unless  it  be  in  those  very  rare  instances  where  a  town  has 
too  large  a  common. 

2.  All  other  structures  should  be  kept  off  the  common.  There 
are  two  popular  infractions  of  this  rule  to  which  a  special  word 
should  be  given.  The  first  is  the  erection  of  a  band-stand  upon 
the  common.  Hundreds  of  towns  have  adopted  this  plan,  but  in 
every  case  the  effect  is  to  detract  from  the  openness  and  dignity  of 
the  grounds.  In  a  large  majority  of  cases  the  band-stand  is  a  shabby 
and  undignified  structure  in  itself,  —  sometimes  an  ugly  derelict. 
Another  fact,  too,  should  have  considerable  force,  viz.,  that  the 
typical  band-stand  is  about  the  poorest  possible  contrivance  from 
which  to  deliver  a  band  concert.     A  stand  suitable  for  band  con- 

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Fig.  94.     A  Large  Town  Common  of  the  Rectangular  Type 


certs  and  for  public  speaking  should  be  quite  differently  designed; 
and  instead  of  being  located  in  the  center  of  the  common,  should 
be  placed  on  its  margin,  at  one  angle,  or  in  some  other  locality 
altogether. 

186 


TOWN     COMMON 


The  other  popular  error  has  been  to  place  the  soldiers  monument 
in  the  center  of  the  common.  The  fact  that  our  New  England 
soldiers'  monuments  exhibit,  in  general,  a  very  low  average  of 
artistic  taste  is  somewhat  beside  the  point,  though  it  aggravates 
the  bad  effect  of  misplacement.  The  effect  is  so  unquestionably 
bad  that  the  time  will  come  when  many  of  these  monuments  will 
be  removed  to  other  locations  and,  let  us  hope,  will  be  replaced  with 
works  better  typifying  the  wholesome  sentiments  which  prompted 
the  present  crop  of  inadequate  sculpture.  The  tendency  to  use  the 
town  common  as  an  appendix  to  the  cemetery  and  to  place  com- 
memorative monuments  upon  it  has  been  somewhat  revived  in 
present  times  as  communities  are  seeking  to  build  war  memorials 
again  for  the  soldiers  of  the  world  war.  This  makes  it  all  the  more 
necessary  to  emphasize  the  undesirability  of  the  practice. 

3.  The  proper  location  for  groups  of  statuary  and  similar 
monuments  is  not  in  the  center  of  open  spaces  but  in  front  of  or 
connected  with  public  buildings.  Occasionally  a  large  monument 
may  be  placed  at  the  end  of  a  street.  Some  very  good  sites  for  large 
and  dignified  monuments  exist  at  the  exigent  angles  of  triangular 
town  commons  where  they  might  face  directly  down  an  important 
road  and  where  they  might  usually  be  given  a  background  of  trees 
and  shrubbery. 

Other  structures  of  a  more  trivial  nature  are  sometimes  placed 
on  the  common,  but  no  fair  justification  of  their  presence  there 
can  possibly  be  offered.  Very  simple  tablets  commemorating  im- 
portant historic  events  may  be  a  possible  exception,  though  these 
should  usually  be  located  at  the  outer  angles  of  the  common.  At- 
tractive guide  posts,  street  lamps,  and  the  customary  watering 
troughs  should  be  placed  in  the  same  way. 

Necessary  Furniture 

A  special  word  may  be  said  about  seats.  On  a  great  many 
commons  seats  are  in  genuine  demand.  Local  circumstances  some- 
times make  it  inexpedient  to  encourage  this  demand  and  to  supply 

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seats  upon  the  common,  but  as  a  general  rule  such  provision  seems 
desirable.  When  seats  are  furnished  they  should  be  of  good  design, 
very  substantially  constructed  and  usually  fixed  in  place.  Seats 
should  be  located  beside  walks  and  not  in  the  center  of  grass  areas. 

Walks:  Another  practical  problem  arises  in  providing  walks 
across  the  common.  Many  instances  are  known  where  ragged,  inter- 
secting or  meandering  walks  across  a  town  common  cut  up  the 
spaces,  spoil  the  grass  and  seriously  injure  the  whole  effect.  About 
all  that  can  be  done,  however,  recognizing  the  practical  necessity 
of  walks,  is  to  reduce  them  to  the  smallest  number,  locate  them  on 
direct  lines  where  the  travel  is  certain  to  go  —  walk  or  no  walk  — 
and  to  construct  them  of  good,  clean,  inconspicuous  materials. 
They  can  then  be  kept  tidy,  at  least.  Any  supposedly  ornamental 
serpentine  treatment  of  the  walks  on  the  common  is  pretty  sure  to 
become  ridiculous. 

Grass  and  Trees:  Careful  study  of  the  problem  reduces  the 
improvement  of  the  town  common  to  a  matter  of  good  lawn  and  good 
trees.  Clean,  open  spaces  of  well-graded,  well-mowed  and  well- 
kept  lawn  shaded  by  large  and  dignified  deciduous  trees  certainly 
give  the  desired  effect  in  ninety  cases  out  of  one  hundred.  Im- 
provement should  begin  on  many  commons  with  a  regrading  and 
reseeding  of  the  lawns.  Existing  lawns  on  town  commons  suffer, 
in  many  cases,  from  lack  of  water  and  fertilizer.  Good  feeding  and 
a  reasonable  water  supply  are  necessary  to  the  development  of  a 
lawn  anywhere.  The  practical  methods  of  improving  grass  lands 
and  lawns  need  not  be  taken  up  here. 

The  repair  of  injured  trees,  the  removal  of  poor  or  crowded 
specimens,  and  the  scientific  preservation  of  those  remaining  should 
be  the  next  undertaking.  In  certain  places  the  planting  of  young 
trees  is  to  be  strongly  recommended,  especially  where,  in  recent 
years,  gypsy  and  brown-tail  moths,  the  elm-leaf  beetle,  leaky  gas 
mains  or  damaging  electric  wires  have  decimated  the  ranks  of 
earher  plantings. 

As  a  rule,  subject  to  only  a  few  exceptions,  the  native  elm  and 

188 


TOWN     COMMON 


the  maple  are  the  best  trees  for  use  on  all  town  commons.  Also 
it  is  better  to  use  only  one  of  these  species  on  any  given  tract,  as  a 
mixture  of  species  never  gives  as  clean,  unified,  and  dignified  a 
result.  Evergreen  trees  of  any  kind  should  be  used  very  rarely. 
While  plantings  should  by  preference  be  given  a  somewhat  formal 
arrangement,  they  should  be  restricted  mainly  to  the  borders  and 
corners  of  the  area,  leaving  the  center  open. 

Plantings  of  shrubbery  on  commons  are  usually  unfortunate. 
They  catch  blowing  newspapers  and  other  waste;  they  are  as  apt 
to  appear  untidy  as  to  enhance  the  ornamental  effect;  they  may  ob- 
struct the  view  seriously,  especially  at  angles  where  automobile 
traffic  centers;  they  are  very  seldom  given  the  care  necessary  to 
keep  them  in  good  conditions. 

Flower  beds  of  any  kind  are  even  less  admissible  in  schemes  for 
improving  the  common.  Only  in  the  most  exceptional  cases  can 
they  be  really  successful. 

New  Commons 

Practically  all  of  our  New  England  town  commons  were  estab- 
lished years  ago  for  purposes  which  no  longer  exist,  yet  it  seems  a 
fair  surmise  that  all  these  open  spaces  are  more  highly  prized  today 
than  when  they  were  first  set  aside.  It  is  a  fair  question  then 
whether  a  patriotic  and  far-sighted  view  would  not  demand  of  us 
that  we  in  this  generation  make  some  similar  provision  for  the 
future.  Our  towns  and  villages  are  thriving.  Many  of  them  are 
growing  rapidly.  New  villages  and  neighborhood  centers  are  form- 
ing. We  ought  to  do  for  them  at  least  as  much  as  our  Indian- 
harassed  forefathers  did  for  us.  The  opening  of  new  common 
spaces  is  a  question  to  be  most  seriously  considered  in  a  number  of 
communities.  Very  careful  preliminary  studies  will  obviously  be 
necessary  in  any  project  of  this  sort. 


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uj   ojuuuXl)  O   (^JJJOurrT 


Fig.  95.     Small  Town  Common,  Triangular  Type 


190 


TOWN    COMMON 


Problems 

One  or  more  of  the  following  problems  should  be  worked  out 
by  every  pupil. 

1.  Several  plans  of  existing  town  commons  are  printed  here- 
with. These  may  be  drawn  out  to  suitable  scale  and  developed  in 
any  way  the  teacher  may  desire.  These  are  excellent  subjects  for 
water-color  rendering. 

2.  If  the  pupils  find  themselves  in  New  England  or  elsewhere 
where  any  town  commons  exist,  the  most  valuable  exercise  is  cer- 
tainly to  make  a  study  of  local  examples.  One  or  several  commons 
should  be  surveyed  and  mapped. 

3.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  where  commons  of  the  New 
England  type  are  not  to  be  found  there  are  other  open  spaces  of 
somewhat  analogous  character  in  public  ownership,  and  these  should 
be  given  similar  study. 

4.  On  the  basis  of  such  surveys  and  detailed  personal  examin- 
ation a  new  set  of  plans  may  be  drawn  showing  possible  alterations 
and  improvements. 

5.  Pupils  may  also  find  it  an  instructive  exercise  to  work  out  a 
theoretical  design  of  an  ideal  town  common,  either  on  some  known 
tract  of  land,  or  merely  on  paper. 

6.  In  those  cases  (mainly  outside  of  New  England)  where  it  is 
necessary  to  study  something  not  quite  the  same  as  a  town  common 
very  careful  thought  should  be  given  to  the  purposes  for  which  the 
space  was  set  aside,  to  its  present  uses  and  to  its  best  future.  These 
considerations  should  be  reduced  to  writing  and  fully  verified.  They 
may  then  form  the  basis  for  an  intelhgent  landscape  gardening  treat- 
ment of  the  area. 

Questions 

1.  Why  did  not  the  New  England  settlers  moving  westward 
across  New  York,  Ohio,  Michigan,  etc.,  carry  with  them  the  feature 
of  the  town  common? 

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2.  Why  has  this  feature  not  been  adopted  by  other  American 
communities,  even  when  the  citizens  were  not  of  New  England 
origin? 

3.  Are  there  similar  village  commons  in  European  communities? 


192 


LESSON  42 

Small  Town  Square 

HIS  lesson  is  intended  to  give  an  opportunity 
for  the  study  of  small  town  parks  of  the  type 
very  commonly  found  in  America,  especially  in 
the  smaller  towns  and  cities  of  the  middle  west. 
The  typical  park  of  this  character  consists  of  a 
square  bounded  by  rectangular  streets.  Front- 
ing upon  this  lot  may  be  either  business  houses 
or  residences,  or  both.  These  spaces  which  are  almost  universally 
called  parks  should  be  given  the  less  ambitious  and  more  accurate 
name  of  squares. 

Discussion 

During  the  development  of  the  checker-board  towns  and  cities 
of  the  middle  west  single  or  double  squares  were  rather  frequently 
set  aside  as  parks.  It  was  sometimes  expected  that  these  spaces 
should  be  occupied  by  public  buildings.  In  other  instances  it  was 
the  obvious  intention  that  they  should  be  planted  with  trees  and 
maintained  for  the  adornment  of  the  city. 

Although  the  purposes  to  which  such  land  might  be  put  were 
undoubtedly  vague  in  the  minds  of  the  creators,  the  reservation  of 
such  open  spaces  was  exceedingly  fortunate.  No  city  could  be  found 
where  such  reservations  are  now  considered  too  many  or  too  large. 
On  the  other  hand  a  great  many  towns  could  be  found,  and  more 
especially  larger  cities,  where  more  frequent  breaks  of  this  sort  are 
now  known  to  be  highly  desirable. 

The  first  point  to  be  understood,  therefore,  is  that  all  these 
spaces  should  now  be  kept  in  public  ownership,  and  should  be  kept 
open  and  free  from  buildings  at  whatever  cost.     A  few  of  these 

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squares  have  been  made  into  public  playgrounds.  While  this 
move  is  not  seriously  objectionable,  and  while  the  great  demand  for 
playgrounds  undoubtedly  justifies  such  appropriations  of  land  in 
many  instances,  it  may  be  said  that  playgrounds  should  be  larger 
and  should  ideally  be  located  elsewhere,  these  simple  open  squares 
being  reserved  as  breathing  and  resting  spaces.  They  may  also  be 
frequently  used  for  public  gatherings,  especially  for  outdoor  dra- 
matics, pageantry  and  music. 


Fig.  96.     Forsyth  Park,  Savannah  —  An  Excellent  Interior  City  Square 

Landscape  Treatment 

From  the  standpoint  of  landscape  gardening  these  city  squares 
present  a  very  puzzling  problem.  In  most  cases  heavy  traffic  lines 
are  necessary  running  diagonally  across  the  squares,   and  some- 

194 


SMALL     TOWN     SQUARE 


times  diametrically.  These  traffic  lines  break  up  the  spaces  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  effective  landscape  treatment  exceedingly  difficult. 
Sometimes  a  band-stand,  paviHon  or  theater  stage  may  be  erected 
at  the  center  of  the  square  and  surrounded  by  a  suitable  plaza  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  make  a  genuine  focus  of  design  and  still  not 
interfere  with  ordinary  cross-traffic.  In  about  an  equal  number  of 
cases  it  will  be  found  best  to  place  any  outdoor  theater  or  similar 
feature  in  one  of  the  quadrants  between  the  walks. 

In  general  buildings  of  all  kinds  are  to  be  avoided.  The  larger 
they  are  the  more  objectionable. 

These  public  squares  are  often  chosen  as  sites  for  public  me- 
morials —  monuments  and  statuary.  There  seems  to  be  a  great  deal 
of  doubt  as  to  where  these  should  be  placed.  It  may  be  said  how- 
ever with  confidence  that  a  very  large  monument  may  sometimes 
be  effectively  placed  in  the  center  of  such  a  square,  but  that  smaller 
monuments  should  always  be  placed  at  the  angles  or  at  the  entrance 
of  a  side  street.  For  instance  in  the  plan  shown,  Figure  97,  a  small 
commemorative  monument  or  statuary  group  could  be  effectively 
placed  in  the  small  plaza  immediately  fronting  upon  the  side  street 
entrance  at  the  west  or  in  the  similar  place  at  the  east  side.*  In 
no  case  should  a  monument  or  group  of  any  sort  be  placed  midway 
along  one  side  of  such  a  square  or  in  the  middle  of  one  of  the  quad- 
rants. 

A  much  too  common  custom  consists  in  placing  upon  these 
squares  a  great  variety  of  ''ornamental"  junk,  such  as  pools,  foun- 
'  tains,  rockeries,  etc.  All  such  features  should  be  rigidly  excluded. 
The  small  city  square  is  no  place  for  any  sort  of  pool  or  lake  unless 
the  whole  square  is  converted  into  a  playground,  when  a  wading 
pool  or  swimming  pool  may  have  its  place. 

Plantings  of  hardy  deciduous  trees  are  desirable  on  nearly  all 
of  the  open  spaces.  The  primary  tree  planting  should  be  in  straight 
rows  along  the  street  margins  and  should  correspond  with  the  reg- 
ular street  plantings  of  the  vicinity.  If  an  open  plaza  is  designed  for 
the  center  of  the  square  the  next  tree  planting  should  be  immediately 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

about  this  plaza  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  it  ample  shade.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  groupings  of  trees  can  be  made  effective  in  other 
parts  of  the  square,  and  it  is  usually  best  to  leave  the  remaining 
spaces  open  for  grass. 

The  establishment  of  good  grass  lawns  is  the  next  step  to  be 
considered.  The  ground  of  course  must  be  carefully  graded  in  order 
that  such  lawns  may  be  kept  mowed. 

Flower  beds  should  never  be  used  on  these  spaces  unless  a  very 
high  degree  of  maintenance  can  be  assured  by  a  well-organized  and 
well-managed  park  department.  Plantings  of  shrubbery  are  rarely 
satisfactory  in  such  localities  unless  they  have  the  same  thorough- 
going attention. 

Suitable  seats  should  be  provided  under  the  shade  of  the  larger 
trees,  both  along  the  marginal  sidewalks  and  about  the  central  plaza. 

Illustration 

Herewith  is  presented  a  plan  of  a  typical  city  square  in  Minne- 
apolis, Minn.  The  present  design,  made  by  Mr.  Theodore  Wirth, 
Superintendent  of  Parks,  is  a  radical  simplification  and  improvement 
of  a  previous  elaborate  layout. 

Problems 

The  pupil  should  copy  this  design  at  a  scale  of  1''  =  40'.  The 
copy  may  be  made  in  pencil  and  rendered  in  crayon,  or  may  be  made 
in  ink. 

The  pupil  should  now  make  an  exhaustive  examination  of  all 
the  open  squares  anywhere  within  his  reach.  He  should  make  a 
full  record  of  their  size,  character  of  the  surface,  present  use,  plant- 
ings and  furnishings.  He  should  determine  whether  they  are  put 
to  the  best  uses  or  not  and  whether  additional  spaces  of  this  kind 
can  be  secured  in  any  way. 

The  student  should  next  make  a  detailed  survey  of  some  par- 

196 


SMALL     TOWN     SQUARE 


ticular  public  square  and  on  the  basis  of  such  survey  should  prepare 
a  full  improvement  plan. 

The  plans  of  different  students  in  a  class,  made  for  the  same  or 


3x    /Ga33taK!feaa:^t§T!^^^^^^3>    ^ 


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JMr.      Tf7eo.Wrrtb,    Supcnntcndi-nc  of  VarKs 


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Fig.  97.     Treatment  of  City  Square  in  Minneapolis 


several  public  squares,  preferably  all  at  the  same  scale,  should  then 
be  put  on  joint  exhibition.  Such  an  exhibition  will  give  an  op- 
portunity for  a  comparison  of  the  work  done  by  different  students; 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

but  what  is  more  valuable  it  will  offer  an  opportunity  for  general 
discussion  and  criticism,  an  opportunity  which  should  be  improved 
to  the  utmost. 

Readings 

G.  M.  Robinson,  Modern  Civic  Art,  Chap.  XV. 
O.  G.  SiMONDS,  Landscape  Gardening,  p.  253. 


198 


LESSON  43 
Playground 


HE  problem  here  presented  for  solution  is  that  of 
the  small  playground  in  a  crowded  city.  This 
involves  the  preparation  of  a  very  compact  de- 
sign in  which  every  inch  of  ground  is  used  to  its 
utmost  capacity.  As  in  all  other  problems  in 
landscape  architecture  the  student  should  give 
first  attention  to  the  practical  requirements  of 
the  problem;  secondly  he  should  study  the  topography  and  all 
natural  features;  thirdly  he  should  provide  a  solution  which  meets 
the  practical  requirements  under  the  physical  conditions  existing 
and  with  a  maximum  of  good  order  and  beauty. 


Illustration 

The  plan  here  reproduced  is  from  a  design  by  Olmsted  Brothers, 
landscape  architects,  for  the  Hardin  Square  playground  in  Chicago, 
111.     The  plan  was  executed  several  years  ago. 


Fig.  98.     Plan  of  Playground,  Hardin  Square,  Chicago.      Design  by  Olmsted  Brothers 

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Observation 

The  playground  occupies  a  small  rectangular  space  covering 
one-half  a  city  block.  The  land  is  level  and  featureless.  Taking 
these  facts  in  connection  with  the  requirement  that  all  space  be 
used  to  the  maximum  efTiciency,  the  designer  is  practically  forced 
to  employ  a  rectangular  subdivision  of  parts  and  a  design  made  up 
wholly  of  straight  lines.  The  design  is  almost  necessarily  sym- 
metrical. 


Fig.  99.    Perspective  Sketch  op  Playground 

In  the  center  is  a  good  sized  field-house,  used  as  a  neighborhood 
center,  with  two  wings  used  as  a  gymnasia  for  men  and  women. 
Adjoining  these  gymnasium  rooms  are  outdoor  gymnasia  for  men 
and  women,  each  one  enclosed.  In  front  of  the  building  is  a  large 
play  field,  used  for  free  play  and  for  baseball  or  football.  In  one 
corner  is  a  swimming  pool,  in  the  opposite  corner  a  wading  pool  and 
playground  for  small  children.  Rows  of  trees  placed  on  structural 
lines  supply  grateful  shade  and  a  background  of  foliage.  Between 
these  trees  hedge-like  borders  of  shrubbery  are  developed.  The 
whole  plan  is  exceedingly  simple,  practical  and  economical. 

Problems 

The  pupils  should  visit  all  playgrounds  within  reach,  make 
paced  surveys  and  draw  out  plans  showing  existing  conditions. 

200 


PLA YGROUND 


# 


Fig.  100.     Typical  City  Playfield,  Minneapolis 


It  will  be  desirable  in  this  as  in  other  problems  to  copy  the 
design  here  shown.  In  the  present  lesson  a  new  feature  of  presen- 
tation is  introduced  in  the  form  of  a  simple  perspective.  It  is  de- 
sirable for  the  student  to  redraw  this  perspective  and  to  develop 

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other  perspectives  of  a  similar  sort  from  other  plans  on  which  he 
may  be  at  work. 

Finally  the  pupil  should  himself  undertake  the  design  of  one  or 
more  playgrounds.  Preferably  these  designs  should  be  based  upon 
existing  conditions  known  to  the  pupil.  First  a  careful  survey  should 
be  made  of  the  property,  a  full  examination  of  the  requirements, 
and  the  design  should  be  worked  out  in  view  of  these  requirements 
on  the  basis  of  the  existing  conditions  as  shown  in  the  survey. 

Readings 

Merc,  American  Playgrounds,  New  York,  1909. 

"The  Playground,"  Monthly  Magazine,  Cooperstown,  N.  Y. 


202 


LESSON  44 

County  Fair  Grounds 

^N  this  lesson  the  pupil  is  asked  to  consider  a 
somewhat  complicated  and  difficult  problem  in 
landscape  gardening,  that  is,  the  design  of  a  mod- 
ern county  fair  grounds.  A  problem  like  this 
belongs  naturally  to  the  most  thoroughly  equipped 
professional  landscape  architect,  not  to  the  stu- 
dent in  an  elementary  course.  It  is  not  expected 
that  the  average  user  of  this  book  will  be  taught  how  to  manage 
work  of  this  magnitude,  but  he  can  at  least  reach  an  intelligent  ap- 
preciation of  the  problems  involved.  If  the  student  gains  from  this 
lesson  some  understanding  of  the  kind  of  work  undertaken  by  the 
professional  landscape  architect,  the  main  purpose  of  the  exercise 
will  have  been  fulfilled. 

Illustration 

The  example  here  cited  is  the  plan  for  the  Clay  County,  Iowa, 
Fair  Grounds.  The  design  is  by  Mr.  Francis  Asbury  Robinson,  of 
the  firm  of  Pearse,  Sprague  &  Robinson,  Des  Moines.  The  layout 
of  this  fair  can  be  easily  understood  from  the  two  drawings,  Figures 
101  and  102. 

Principles  of  Design 

This  fair  grounds  plan  has  been  fully  expounded  by  Mr.  Robin- 
son and  the  following  statement  of  "The  Essentials  of  a  Successful 
Layout"  is  taken  from  his  article. 

"In  considering  the  requirements  for  success,  while  too  great 
emphasis  cannot  be  put  on  the  educational  elements  of  a  fair,  it 
must  be  remembered,  nevertheless,  that  if  the  treasury  cannot  show 

203 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


G(^ovt 


FiLE.ioanivv.sruraQ)BYCCAPPEovu)Bte« 

PLAWNO.t        DBAWN  BY  woe  REVISED 
DATE  OCTIqiT  TRACED   BY1TA. 


Fig.  101.     Modern  County  Fair  Grounds  in  Iowa 


a  favorable  balance  the  supporters  will  not  be  satisfied.  It  is  strictly 
a  business  venture  and  must  show  a  profit,  or  at  least  make  expenses, 
in  order  to  receive  the  necessary  annual  support.  This  consider- 
ation means,  therefore,  provision  for  additional  income  over  mere 
gate  receipts,  or  attractions  aside  from  those  strictly  educational,  to 

204 


COUNTY    FAIR     GROUNDS 


swell  these  receipts.  The  race-track,  side-shows,  concessions  for  sale 
of  novelties,  drinks,  and  eatables  have  been  the  usual  recourse  and 
will  always  be  the  source  of  greatest  income. 

"The  task  of  the  designer  is  to  so  arrange  and  coordinate  these 
various  features  that  they  will  not  only  present  the  most  attractive 
appearance  and  be  of  easiest  access,  but  also  bring  the  greatest 
financial  return  by  placing  the  revenue-producing  attractions  in  the 
most  advantageous  positions. 

"Consideration  must  also  be  given  to  the  varying  and  diverse 
interest  and  needs  of  both  men  and  women.  Live  stock,  crops,  farm 
buildings  and  machinery  are  of  greatest  interest  to  the  men,  while 
poultry,  fruits,  vegetables,  fancy  work  and  canning  make  their 
appeal  to  the  women.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  separate  the 
exhibits  into  two  distinct  divisions,  placing  the  women's  features 
nearest  and  the  men's  farthest  away  from  the  entrances.  A  dis- 
tinct woman's  building  should  be  provided,  with  rest  room  and  day 
nursery,  and  with  fenced  playground  adjacent.  In  this  building 
provision  should  be  made  for  the  exhibition  of  laces,  fancy  work  and 
other  objects  of  particular  interest  to  women.  Here,  also,  light  re- 
freshments might  be  served.  In  close  proximity  to  this  building  a 
floral  hall  should  be  located  for  the  display  of  vegetables  and  small 
fruit  with  which  women  are  intimately  concerned.  If  possible,  the 
poultry  and  sheep  barns  should  not  be  far  distant,  as  these  contain 
the  stock  most  interesting  of  all  to  women. 

"In  a  central  position,  easily  reached  from  all  the  grounds,  a 
dining-hall  should  be  erected.  This  may  be  made  one  of  the  most 
profitable  buildings  on  the  grounds  if  properly  managed.  The 
centralization  of  eating  facilities  is  important  and  always  proves 
one  of  the  most  successful  features. 

"For  the  proper  facilitation  of  the  business  of  the  fair  an  ad- 
ministration building  is  an  important  unit.  This  should  be  near  the 
main  entrance  and  the  direct  fine  of  traffic,  so  that  it  may  be  easily 
reached  by  all  visitors  with  a  minimum  of  confusion.     This  building 


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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

may  be  of  quite  permanent  construction,  so  that  winter  meetings 
may  be  held  here  in  connection  with  auctions  or  sales. 

"The  main  feature  of  the  stock  barns  should  be  a  judging  pa- 
vilion for  all-year  display  and  sale  of  stock.  Here  may  be  kept  the 
permanent  books  of  the  various  stock  associations,  together  with 


Fig.  102.    Aeroplane  View,  Clay  County  Fair  Grounds 


auction  and  sales  records.  This  building  should  be  centrally  lo- 
cated in  relation  to  the  barns,  as  they  are  all  subsidiary  to  it,  and 
the  entire  group  should  be  placed  at  a  point  quite  remote  from  the 
main  entrances,  because  of  unpleasant  odors  and  on  account  of  the 
desire  of  interested  visitors  to  get  away  from  the  crowd  when  view- 
ing stock. 

"If  possible,  the  machinery  hall  should  be  located  in  a  position 
between  the  women's  building  and  the  stock  barns,  for  the  exhibits 
here  are  interesting  to  both  sexes  —  from  electric  washing  machines 
to  automatic  milkers.  In  the  rear  of  or  near  the  machinery  build- 
ing there  should  be  an  open  field  for  the  display  of  large  farm  ma- 
chinery, harvesters,  binders,  elevators,  tractors  and  the  like,  where 
there  is  ample  room  for  demonstration  purposes. 

206 


COUNTY     FAIR     GROUNDS 


"The  principal  consideration  in  the  location  of  the  amusement 
sections  is  that  they  be  permanent  and  so  distributed  that  the 
maximum  number  of  people  will  have  to  pass  each  attraction  with 
minimum  congestion.  The  amphitheater  and  race  track  should  if 
possible  be  on  one  of  the  main  avenues  leading  from  the  entrance, 
so  that  the  great  crowds  may  readily  find  them.  For  orientation, 
north  is  preferable  and  east  permissible,  in  order  that  the  sun  may 
not  shine  in  the  spectators'  eyes,  and  the  long  axis  of  the  track  should 
be  east-and-west,  so  that  the  finish  may  be  toward  the  east  and 
avoid  the  blinding  sun  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  majority  of  races 
are  held.  The  size  of  the  track  depends  much  on  the  desires  of  the 
community,  but  the  tendency  in  modern  construction  is  towards 
the  one-mile  track,  which  can  be  utilized  for  horse-racing  as  well 
as  automobiles.  This  gives  a  distinction  over  the  old  type,  although 
the  half-mile  track  is  more  easily  seen  by  the  crowd  and  requires 
greater  skill  in  driving,  owing  to  the  increased  number  of  turns. 
Much  opposition  has  been  made  by  turfmen  to  the  use  of  the  track 
for  automobile  races,  but  experience  is  proving  that  it  requires  not 
a  great  deal  of  maintenance  to  have  a  dual-purpose  track,  and  the 
revenue  is  of  course  much  greater. 

"In  designing  the  ground  plan  of  a  fair  the  traffic  problem 
becomes  the  major  consideration,  after  building  provision,  owing  to 
the  ever-increasing  number  of  automobiles.  In  fact,  autos  are  the 
making  of  county  fairs.  For  ease  of  handling  and  as  a  safety  pre- 
caution, complete  separation  of  vehicular  and  pedestrian  traffic  is 
strongly  urged.  Separate  entrances  on  different  sides  of  the  grounds 
should  be  provided,  if  possible,  and  individual  parking  booths  should 
be  created  to  care  for  every  machine.  The  exits  should  be  apart 
from  the  entrances,  so  that  a  one-way  traffic  ruling  may  be  enforced. 
Only  thus  can  congestion  be  avoided  during  all  times  in  the  day. 

"While  congestion  should  be  avoided  on  the  main  thorough- 
fares for  pedestrian  traffic,  still  there  is  a  point  in  keeping  the  crowd 
from  scattering  over  so  large  a  territory  that  the  effect  of  size  is 
lost.     Nothing  is  better  advertising  than  crowded  grounds.     Too 

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much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  on  this  feature  of  the  design.  To 
properly  arrange  thoroughfares  to  take  advantage  of  this  psychol- 
ogical effect  and  still  permit  easy  and  free  movement  is  the  designer's 
problem." 

Study 

Pupils  should  first  give  careful  study  to  the  foregoing  "prin- 
ciples of  design"  as  enunciated  by  Mr.  Robinson,  and  should  ex- 
amine the  plan  of  the  Clay  County  Fair  Grounds  in  detail  to  see  how 
each  of  these  principles  has  been  worked  out.  The  class  should 
then  go  over  the  plan  together,  taking  up  each  item,  as  location  of 
race-track,  location  of  live-stock  arena,  provision  for  concessions, 
dealing  with  automobiles,  etc.,  discussing  and  criticizing  all  these 
points. 

If  the  class  can  now  visit  a  fair  grounds  they  should  attend  in  a 
body  accompanied  by  the  teacher;  and  though  a  visit  while  the 
fair  is  in  session  would  be  illuminating  and  much  worth  while,  the 
final  examination  for  study  should  be  made  when  the  grounds  are 
not  in  actual  use.  At  this  time  the  layout  should  be  studied  in  the 
manner  already  recommended,  item  by  item,  and  all  points  criti- 
cized in  the  light  of  the  principles  of  landscape  architecture  thus  far 
developed.  Such  questions  as  the  following  should  be  asked  and 
answered : 

Are  the  grounds  favorably  located? 

Is  the  land  topographically  suited  to  its  uses? 

Are  the  grounds  large  enough? 

Are  the  grounds  clearly  and  properly  subdivided  and  appor- 
tioned for  the  desired  uses? 

Is  the  entrance  in  the  right  place? 

Is  the  entrance  area  well  designed? 

Are  the  buildings  properly  designed  and  well  suited  to  their 
several  uses? 

Are   the    buildings   most    advantageously   placed?    Are   they 
grouped  effectively? 

208 


COUNTY     FAIR     GROUNDS 


Is  the  provision  for  traffic  circulation,  both  pedestrian  and 
vehicular,  the  best  that  could  be  desired?  Are  the  two 
classes  of  traffic  separated? 

Are  the  race-track  and  amphitheater  well  placed  and  equipped? 

Are  the  concessions  properly  cared  for? 

Other  similar  questions  will  certainly  arise  during  such  a  study, 
and  should  be  answered. 

In  case  the  class  cannot  visit  any  fair  grounds  in  a  body  for  this 
exercise,  it  may  be  possible  for  them  to  study  the  plan  of  some 
familiar  grounds  and  to  answer  most  of  these  questions  from  the 
plan. 

Finally  each  member  of  the  class  should  reach  the  conclusion 
that  the  design  of  so  complicated  an  organism  as  a  fair  grounds  can 
be  much  better  drawn  by  a  trained  landscape  architect  than  by  a 
county  fair  committee  consisting  of  one  retired  farmer,  one  real 
estate  promoter  and  one  automobile  dealer. 

Reference 

The  pupil  may  find  it  desirable  to  consult  the  entire  article  by 
Mr.  Robinson,  parts  of  which  are  quoted  in  this  lesson.  This 
article  on  "Modern  County  Fair  Grounds"  appears  in  American 
City,  18  :  409,  New  York,  May,  1918. 


209 


LESSON  45 

Civic  Center 

HE  purposes  of  this  lesson  are  to  develop  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  civic  center  in  city  and  country 
planning,  to  place  two  or  three  simple  examples 
before  the  student's  attention,  and  to  make  a 
study  of  civic  centers  in  the  pupil's  home  neigh- 
borhood. 

Definition 

A  civic  center  is  a  group  of  public  buildings  placed  conveniently 
near  together,  with  the  grounds  surrounding  them. 

These  buildings  may  be  few  or  many,  large  or  small,  simple  or 
grandiose  in  the  extreme.  There  may  be  included  in  the  group  also 
certain  quasi-public  buildings,  such  as  churches,  parochial  schools, 
telephone  exchange,  hotel,  etc.  Any  buildings  largely  used  by  the 
public  may  be  grouped  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  certain  manifest 
advantages. 

There  may  be  civic  centers  of  different  kinds.  For  example  the 
city  hall,  post  office,  customs  house  and  court-house  would  form  an 
administrative  center;  the  city  library,  high  school  and  concert 
hall  would  constitute  an  educational  center;  a  union  railway  station, 
interurban  trolley  station  and  steamboat  wharf  grouped  together 
would  make  up  a  traffic  center. 

Discussion 

The  advantages  sought  in  such  groupings  of  public  buildings  are 
both  practical  and  esthetic.  On  the  practical  side  it  seems  obvious 
that  the  public  business  can  be  transactedimost  efficiently  if  the 

210 


CIVIC     CENTER 


Fig.  103.     Two  Sides  of  San  Francisco's  Imposing  Civic  Center 
211 


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11 


SCHOOL      GARDEMS 


PR9P05ED     CIVIC     CENTER^     FO^    RDSEVILLE   OHIO 

SAMUEL    D   ZEHRJJMG         LAMD5CAPE    ARCHITECT  JAM    1916 


Fig.  104.    Design  for  a  Civic  Center 
212 


CIVIC     CENTER 


various  offices  are  located  near  each  other.  The  Eastman  Kodak 
Co.  would  hardly  care  to  have  their  large  plant  scattered  all  over 
Rochester,  nor  would  Mr.  Henry  Ford  make  his  low-priced  cars  so 
economically  with  his  factory  divided  into  six  or  eight  units  and 
distributed  to  the  four  quarters  of  Detroit.  In  exactly  the  same 
way  the  public  business  of  a  town  or  city  should  be  concentrated 
into  the  smallest  practicable  space. 

The  esthetic  advantages  of  bringing  together  the  various  pub- 
lic buildings  of  a  town  or  city  are  even  greater.  If  a  city's  public 
buildings  are  well  and  harmoniously  designed  and  if  they  are  prop- 
erly grouped  and  if  they  are  given  suitable  open  space  the  total 
effect  is  greatly  enhanced.  A  city  with  such  a  civic  center  has 
something  to  be  proud  of,  something  to  incite  civic  patriotism,  some- 
thing to  arouse  and  symbolize  a  love  for  "the  home  town." 

Many  American  cities  are  making  earnest  effort  for  the  develop- 
ment of  good  civic  centers.  At  this  moment  we  may  perhaps  give 
first  place  to  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  but  promising  beginnings  can 
be  found  in  a  thousand  different  municipalities. 

It  must  be  understood,  of  course,  that  the  smallest  villages 
and  country  districts  may,  should  and  do  have  their  civic  centers 
just  as  truly  as  the  great  world  capitals.  Thus  a  post  office,  church, 
school  and  social  hall  brought  together  at  the  country  cross-roads 
has  the  same  civic  significance  as  the  great  masses  of  big  buildings 
along  the  mall  in  Washington,  D.  C. 


Illustrations 

Two  illustrations  of  civic  centers  are  included  in  this  lesson. 
The  first  is  a  study  based  upon  existing  conditions  in  Roseville,  0., 
made  by  Mr.  Samuel  D.  Zehrung,  landscape  architect.  The  sec- 
ond is  an  idealized  grouping  of  public  buildings  at  a  country  cross- 
roads. 

In  connection  with  this  lesson  the  pupil  should  also  consult 
the  plan  of  the  court-house  square  shown  on  page  180  and  the  plan  of 

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TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


& 


'SP/dy ground". 


JJe  jinibJeot   Cirlo  Center  -  Ideal /^d  by  P.^.IP. 


Fig.  105.    A  Rural  Civic  Center 
214 


CIVIC     CENTER 


the  village  center  page  97,  both  of  which  represent  partially  devel- 
oped civic  centers. 

Problems 

The  pupil  should  first  copy  these  two  drawings  at  a  scale  of 
V  =  30'.  These  copies  should  be  made  in  ink,  or  in  pencil  and 
colored  crayon. 

The  next  step  should  be  to  discover  and  map  any  civic  centers  in 
the  vicinity.     To  this  problem  the  pupil  should  give  special  attention. 

Revisions  of  existing  layouts  may  then  be  undertaken.  Prob- 
lems of  this  kind  are  of  course  very  diflicult,  especially  if  one  regards 
the  practical  obstacles  to  their  realization.  The  beginner  in  the 
study  of  landscape  architecture  should  not  expect  to  solve  immedi- 
ately the  most  serious  physical  problems  of  Chicago,  New  Orleans 
or  Atlanta,  or  even  of  Hickville  or  Podunk,  but  he  can,  profitably  to 
himself,  put  a  lot  of  study  into  such  problems,  especially  if  he  will 
confine  himself  to  small-town  conditions.  A  good  teacher  can,  of 
course,  give  many  useful  suggestions  at  this  point. 


215 


LESSON   46 

Country  School  Grounds 

HE  country  schools  of  the  nation  are  highly  impor- 
tant and  the  physical  surrounds  of  each  school 
play  a  highly  influential  part  in  determining 
final  results.  It  is  desired  at  this  time  to  learn 
what  present  conditions  actually  are,  what  ideal 
conditions  would  be,  and  how  the  former  can 
be  made  to  approach  more  nearly  to  the  latter. 

Specifically  this  lesson  considers  the  plan  of  the  country  school 

grounds. 

Argument 

Size  of  Grounds:  Some  school  grounds  are  too  small.  Ex- 
uberant school  boys  and  girls  cannot  be  confined  like  convicts  in  a 
penitentiary.  The  country  boy  who  does  not  necessarily  cover  more 
than  half  an  acre  in  his  first  ten  minutes  of  play  should  be  sent  to 
the  hospital  at  once.  There  is  something  wrong  with  him.  In 
the  country,  where  land  is  cheap  and  where  people  are  unused  to 
being  crowded,  the  school  grounds  should  be  ample.  One  acre 
may  be  regarded  as  the  minimum  for  any  school;  two  acres  is  not 
too  much  for  a  large  and  well-managed  country  school;  while  high 
schools  and  academies,  especially  those  teaching  agriculture,  will 
sometimes  need  five  or  ten  acres.  Country  schools  which  now  have 
less  than  one  acre  should  buy  more  at  the  first  opportunity. 

The  School  Building:  The  school  house,  which  of  course  should 
be  well  built,  well  furnished,  well  fighted,  well  ventilated,  well 
painted,  and  well  kept,  should  be  placed  well  forward  on  the  lot, 
near  the  street.  This  is  because  land  back  of  the  school  house  is 
valuable,  while  that  in  front  is  comparatively  useless.     A  distance 

216 


COUNTRY     SCHOOL     GROUNDS 


of  twenty  to  thirty  feet  back  from  the  road  is  usually  satisfactory. 
Where  practicable  one  good  shade  tree,  —  maple,  oak,  or  elm,  — 
should  be  placed  twelve  to  twenty  feet  to  the  south  of  the  school 
house,  and  another  similar  tree  the  same  distance  to  the  southwest. 


Fig.  106.     A  Clean  and  Okuehly  School  C!kound3 

The  shadows  of  these  trees  falling  on  the  building,  will  do  more  than 
any  other  one  thing  to  relieve  that  appearance  of  forlorn  nakedness 
and  utter  crudity  so  depressing  in  the  average  school  house.  Where- 
ever  conditions  permit  much  can  be  gained  also  by  having  a  narrow 
border  —  three  to  six  feet  wide  —  of  shrubbery  along  the  house 
foundations.  Usually  these  borders  should  be  of  native  species 
collected  from  adjoining  fields  by  school  pupils. 

Other  Buildings:  As  a  rule  the  disgusting  limit  is  reached  in 
the  insanitary  outbuildings  of  the  country  school  grounds.  The 
disgrace  of  this  condition  is  so  commonly  felt  that  no  argument 
against  it  need  now  be  made.  The  sanitaries  should  be  placed  at 
the  back  line  of  the  lot,  in  which  case  they  should  either  be  separated 
by  a  fence  or  should  be  at  the  outside  corners  with  the  width  of  the 
lot  between  them.  They  should  be  screened  from  view  by  plantings 
of  native  shrubbery.     In  certain  cases  it  is  better  to  group  the  sani- 

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taries  at  the  back  of  the  school  house,  connecting  them  with  the 
woodshed  or  some  similar  structure.  Very  special  effort  should 
be  put  forth  to  keep  them  clean  and  in  repair. 

Fences  may  be  dispensed  with  on  a  good  many  rural  school 
grouads,  and  should  never  be  built  unless  clearlv  needed.     Where 


SCHOOL  GROUNDS 
HAMPDEN      MASS 

P  H  ELWOOD.  JR.,  DESIQNEti 


.. I 


Fig.  107.     Improvement  Plan  for  Rural  School 


they  are  positively  required  they  are  usually  best  made  of  heavy 
woven  wire,  boy-high,  boy-strong,  and  boy-tight,  to  paraphrase  a 
famous  saying.  Every  fence  should  have  enough  annual  attention 
to  keep  it  whole  and  standing  straight. 

On  a  few  country  school  grounds  horse  sheds  will  be  needed. 
These  should  be  at  the  back  of  the  lot,  out  of  the  way  of  the  play, 
but  open  to  constant  public  view. 

218 


COUNTRY     SCHOOL     GROUNDS 

Play  Grounds:  School  children  need  abundant  room  for  play. 
One  might  suppose  this  was  sufficiently  obvious  to  be  generally 
known,  but  the  niggardly  provision  of  land,  even  in  the  country, 
indicates  that  the  fact  has  been  widely  overlooked.  Apparently 
it  has  been  tacitly  assumed  in  very  many  instances  that  the  school 
pupil  will  play  in  a  neighbor's  pasture  or  in  the  public  road,  where, 
between  the  bulls  and  the  automobiles  he  might  really  get  consider- 
able exercise.  Yet  neither  private  pasture  nor  public  road  is  to 
be  seriously  accepted  as  a  proper  provision  for  valuable  boys  and  girls. 

A  baseball  diamond  is  the  first  necessity  for  a  playground. 
A  full-size  diamond,  ninety  feet  between  bases,  requires  about 
three-fourths  of  an  acre  in  itself.  A  small  boy's  diamond,  sixty 
feet  between  bases,  requires  half  an  acre,  or  more  than  the  entire 
allowance  for  some  school  grounds.  Other  sorts  of  play  should 
also  be  provided  for,  such  as  swings,  slides,  etc.,  with  adequate  open 
grounds  for  the  usual  children's  games. 

The  planning  and  equipment  of  playgrounds  and  the  organ- 
ization of  proper  play  is  a  whole  subject  in  itself.  In  many  com- 
munities this  matter  ought  to  be  taken  up  urgently  and  quite  aside 
from  the  question  of  school  grounds. 

School  Gardens:  Every  country  school  ought  to  be  provided 
with  some  sort  of  school  garden.  Just  what  use  will  be  made  of  it 
depends  largely  on  the  teacher.  Even  the  poorest  teacher  can  do 
something  with  it,  while  in  the  hands  of  a  really  good  manager  the 
school  garden  will  become  the  most  useful  feature  of  the  school 
equipment. 

The  school  garden  should  be  small.  A  large  parcel  of  land  is 
apt  to  grow  up  to  weeds.  One  quarter  of  an  acre  will  be  ample  for 
most  schools;  and  a  quarter  of  that  will  be  a  great  deal  better  than 
nothing.  This  garden,  however,  should  be  an  integral  part  of  the 
school  plan.  It  should  lie  next  to  the  t)laygrounds,  and  should 
form  an  attractive  feature  in  the  general  effect. 

Trees  and  Shrubs:  On  Arbor  Day  it  is  customary  for  the  girls 
to  speak  pieces  and  the  boys  to  plant  trees.     Inasmuch  as  the  av- 

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TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

erage  school  yard  has  room  for  only  three  or  four  trees,  this  exercise 
has  to  be  given  up  or  the  yard  is  soon  over-crowded.  Plantings  of 
shrubs  about  the  foundations  of  the  school  house,  along  the  prop- 
erty bounds  and  in  front  of  out-buildings  may  well  supplement  or 
take  the  place  of  tree  plantings.  Such  shrubs  should  preferably  be 
of  native  species  collected  from  the  fields  by  the  students.  The 
best  plan  is  to  grow  them  a  year  in  the  school  garden  nursery  before 


Two  Acre  School  Grounds 
Designed  by   F  a  Waugh 

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c  SCHOOL  :   .  C  H  4  LD  Fk  E:  N  •.  n 


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Fig.  108.     Country  School  Grounds  with  Play  Grounds  and  Gardens 

transplanting  to  permanent  situations.  More  elaborate  schemes 
of  so-called  ornamental  planting  on  school  grounds  are  to  be  viewed 
with  suspicion.  Flower  beds  in  the  front  lawn  rarely  yield  any- 
thing more  than  disappointment,  and  not  much  of  that. 


220 


COUNTRY     SCHOOL     GROUNDS 


Ground  Plans 

The  most  important  points  to  be  observed  in  school  ground 
design  are: 

1.  Convenience:  The  practical  requirements  must  be  met 
first  and  absolutely.     They  are  very  definite  and  cannot  be  ignored. 

2.  Simplicity:  The  simplest  scheme  of  layout  is  almost  neces- 
sarily the  best. 

3.  Orderliness:  A  hit-or-miss,  jumbled-up  arrangement  of  parts 
is  fatal  to  good  design. 

The  "beautification"  of  school  grounds,  sometimes  soberly 
discussed,  must  be  achieved  through  convenience,  simplicity,  and 
good  order.  A  failure  in  these  qualities  can  never  be  covered  up 
by  any  quantity  of  "ornamental  planting." 

General  Care 

Maintenance  is  even  more  important  than  the  original  layout  of 
school  grounds.  The  grounds  must  be  kept  clean  and  in  good  order 
at  all  times.  The  school  house  and  out-buildings  must  be  clean  and 
in  repair.  All  this  costs  more  in  thought  and  labor  than  people 
commonly  suppose.  It  is  in  fact  much  more  expensive  in  both  time 
and  money  than  any  scheme  of  beautification  likely  to  be  under- 
taken. Moreover,  it  requires  much  larger  moral  qualities  to  pur- 
sue the  daily  drudgery  of  maintenance  and  to  keep  everything  always 
looking  spick  and  span.  It  is  a  good  thing  for  the  school  teacher, 
the  school  board,  or  the  village  improvement  society  to  organize 
a  campaign  for  the  improvement  of  school  grounds.  It  is  an  equally 
good  thing  to  conduct  a  campaign  for  their  daily  care. 

Problems 

Problem  I:  Each  pupil  should  now  be  required  to  report, 
preferably  in  writing,  upon  one  or  more  rural  school  grounds,  such 
reports,  of  course,  to  be  based  upon  actual  visits  and  careful  ex- 

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TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

amination  of  the  grounds  discussed.  These  reports  may  be  outUned 
upon  the  points  covered  in  the  preceding  argument,  and  should 
supply  direct  and  unequivocal  answers  to  the  following  questions: 

1.  How  large  are  the  grounds?  Are  they  large  enough?  How 
much  more  land  is  needed,  if  any?  What  is  it  needed  for?  Where 
can  it  be  added?     What  will  it  cost? 

2.  Is  the  school  house  satisfactory?  If  not,  what  are  its  de- 
fects —  Size?     Appearance?     Paint?     Orientation?     Set-back? 

3.  Are  there  other  buildings  or  fences?  Are  they  satisfactory? 
What  more  is  needed? 

4.  Are  the  playgrounds  adequate?  What  more  is  needed? 
Is  play  apparatus  desirable? 

5.  Are  there  school  gardens?  Are  any  needed?  How  can  they 
be  provided? 

6.  Are  there  trees  and  shrubs?  Are  others  needed?  If  so, 
what  and  where? 

7.  Are  the  grounds  well  planned  for  efficiency  and  beauty? 
What  changes  could  be  made? 

8.  Are  the  grounds  properly  cared  for? 

9.  Be  sure  to  report  the  size  of  the  building,  the  number  of 
rooms,  the  number  of  teachers  and  the  number  of  grades  accom- 
modated. 

These  reports  should,  of  course,  all  be  read  and  criticized  by 
the  teacher;  but  as  far  as  time  permits  they  should  be  read  in  class 
and  freely  discussed  by  all  pupils. 

Problem  II:  Make  a  paced  survey  and  plan  of  an  existing 
country  school  ground,  and  on  this  survey  prepare  a  plan  for  the 
ideal  reorganization  of  the  grounds.  This  exercise  will  work  out 
favorably  if  all  pupils  in  a  class  are  assigned  to  the  redesigning  of 
the  same  grounds.  The  various  solutions  handed  in  by  the  several 
pupils  should  then  be  displayed  together  and  criticized  by  the  teacher 
and  pupils  together. 

Problem  III:  As  this  subject  is  one  of  great  popular  interest 
and  social  importance  it  may  be  worth  while  to  extend  the  study  by 

222 


COUNTRY    SCHOOL     GROUNDS 

taking  up  a  third  problem.  For  this  purpose  it  will  be  well  for  each 
pupil  to  design  an  ideal  rural  school  ground.  Definite  conditions 
should  be  assumed,  for  example,  a  one-room  school  in  a  stock  farm- 
ing district  attended  by  35  pupils  and  covering  grades  1  to  6.  The 
ideal  plan  should  be  attractively  drawn  to  scale,  possibly  rendered 
in  water  color;  and  all  the  plans  of  all  members  of  the  class  should 
be  displayed  together  for  discussion  and  criticism. 

Readings 

Challman,  S.  a.,  The  Rural  School  Plant,  Milwaukee,  1917. 
SiMONDS,  Landscape  Gardening,  Chap.  XV.,  New  York,  1920. 


223 


LESSON   47 

Cemetery  Improvement 

HERE  are  two  leading  purposes  in  this  exercise. 
The  first  is  to  study  the  common  problem  of  the 
improvement  of  an  old  cemetery;  the  second  is 
to  illustrate  that  form  of  professional  landscape 
gardening  which  uses  the  written  report  in  the 
presentation  of  working  plans. 

Regarding  the  first  of  these  purposes  it  may 
be  said  that  nearly  all  public  cemeteries  stand  in  need  of  improve- 
ment, that  this  need  is  obvious  and  generally  recognized  and  that 
all  cemeteries  have  pretty  much  the  same  problems. 

Regarding  the  second  purpose  we  should  observe  that  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  practice  of  the  professional  landscape  gardener 
consists  in  giving  advice,  which  should  always  be  written,  and  which 
nearly  always  can  best  be  presented  in  a  formal  report.  While 
the  writing  of  reports  is  primarily  an  exercise  in  language  there  are 
certain  formalities  which  should  always  be  observed.  In  general 
the  requirements  of  a  good  professional  report  are  (1)  sound  advice 

—  the  recommendations  made  must  be  technically  correct,  (2)  form 

—  the  materials  should  be  arranged  in  logical  order  (3)  language 

—  terse,  simple,  clear  language  should  be  used. 

Materials 

There  is  given  below  a  transcript  of  a  report  made  upon  an 
ancient  cemetery  in  Provincetown,  Mass.  This  should  be  studied, 
both  as  to  form  and  matter.  The  principles  discussed  in  this  lesson 
should  finally  be  applied  to  some  cemetery  which  can  be  visited  and 
reported  upon  by  the  pupil. 

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CEMETERY    IMPROVEMENT 


Fig.  109.     Chapel  and  Plantings  —  Graceland  Cemetery,  Chicago. 
O.  C.  SiMONDS,  Designer 


Herewith  follows  the  report  mentioned  above: 

Amherst,  Mass.,  Sept.  30,  1914. 
The  Research  Club, 

Miss  Frances  C.  Gifford,  Sec'y, 
Provincetown,  Mass. 

On  September  26  I  visited  Provincetown  and  in  company  with  several 
members  of  your  club  examined  the  Old  Cemetery.  At  that  time  I  gave 
you  some  verbal  suggestions  as  to  methods  for  the  improvement  of  this  tract 
and  promised  to  send  you  further  this  written  statement  of  my  advice. 

I  found  that  the  Old  Cemetery  is  a  field  of  4  or  5  acres,  quite  irregular 
in  outline  and  conspicuously  rough  in  topography.  The  soil  is  mostly  dry, 
loose,  fine  sea  sand.  This  soil  is  bare  except  for  an  irregular  growth  of 
beach  grass,  some  patches  of  huckleberries,  wild  roses,  beach  plums  and 
similar  low  shrubbery,  and  a  few  picturesque  old  junipers  near  the  center. 

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The  difficulties  of  establishing  any  sort  of  ornamental  growth  on  this  land 
are  extreme.  The  chief  of  these,  briefly  stated,  are  the  sterility  of  the  soil, 
the  lack  of  water,  and  the  exposure  to  the  severe  sea  winds. 

The  first  and  most  important  thing  to  be  done,  in  my  judgment,  is 
to  establish  a  strong,  heavy  wind-break  about  the  cemetery,  especially  on  the 
windward  boundaries.  This  wind-break  should  accomplish  two  purposes, 
the  first  one  practical,  the  second  esthetic,  but  both  of  prime  importance. 


Fig.  110.     The  Neglected  Cemetery 


Practically  it  will  be  necessary  to  break  the  sweep  of  the  sea  winds  across 
the  cemetery  before  any  other  ornamental  plantings  can  be  established. 
Esthetically  the  privacy  to  be  secured  by  an  enclosure  of  green  trees  is  in- 
valuable. At  present  the  grounds  are  notably  bleak,  uncomfortable,  dreary. 
Shut  in  by  a  wall  of  green  they  would  be  comparatively  cozy,  quiet  and 
restful.  Such  a  spot  would  offer  upon  these  wind-tortured  hills  the  spiri- 
of  refuge  which  is  the  appropriate  spirit  for  the  Old  Cemetery. 

This  wind-break  should  be  constructed  of  any  trees  which  can  be  effect 
tively  grown,  species  being  chosen  with  reference  to  their  vigor  and  hardiness 
under  the  very  adverse  conditions  rather  than  to  their  looks  or  popularity. 
Such  trees  are  the  Silver  Poplar,  the  Black  Locust,  Willows,  Ailanthus. 

These  should  be  planted  in  a  thick  border  from  10  to  30  feet  wide. 
They  should  not  be  pruned  up  to  clean  trunks,  the  object  being  to  make  the 
border  impervious  to  the  wind.     Along  the  margins  of  this  tree  border  may 

226 


CEMETERY     IMPROVEMENT 


be  planted  thick-growing  shrubs  such  as  Sumachs,  Beach  plums,  Bay  berries 
and  Viburnum  dentatum. 

After  this  wind-break  has  become  established,  that  is  after  a  period  of 
10  to  20  years,  its  composi- 
tion may  be  substantially 
improved  by  the  gradual 
substitution  of  better  spe- 
cies. Such  kinds  as  Euro- 
pean linden,  some  pines, 
possibly  spruces.  Red  Oak, 

Carolina  Poplar,  Lombardy  '  < 

Poplar,  Elms,  Norway 
Maple,  which  could  not  be 
grown  on  the  open  hills, 
may  be  brought  in  under 
the  protection  of  the  hard- 
ier Silver  Poplars,  Willows 
and  Locusts. 

The  second  funda- 
mental requirement  for 
the  Old  Cemetery  is  some 
effective  ground  cover.  It 
will  never  do  to  leave  the 
dry  sand  exposed.  At  the 
outset  this  ground  cover 
must  be  composed  of  any 
species  whatever  which  will 
condescend  to  grow  here. 
The  best  of  these  are  the 
Huckleberry,  the  Bay 
berry,  the  Beach  Plum  and 
the  wild  Roses;  but  any 
others  which  volunteer 
their  services  must  not  be 
despised.  Even  the  un- 
pleasant Beach  grass  should 
be  retained  until  something 
else  will  take  its  place. 

Some  sort  of  ground  cover  once  established,  its  composition  can  be 
gradually  improved,  as  in  the  case  of  the  bordering  wind-break,  by  the  sub- 
stitution of  better  species  for  the  coarser  and  less  agreeable.     But  some 


Fig.  111.     An  Ancient  Church-yard  Cemetery 


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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

permanent  cover  of  living  material  is  absolutely  essential  to  any  further 
progress. 

The  suggestion  made  by  one  of  your  members  to  use  the  wild  cranberry 
("bog  cranberry")  upon  the  open  spaces  strikes  me  as  very  promising.  Prob- 
ably experiment  would  discover  practicable  means  of  transplanting  and  es- 
tablishing this  species  in  quantities. 

In  this  connection  it  seems  best  to  advise  you  regarding  two  methods 
of  great  importance  in  handling  all  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs,  especially  under 
your  very  difficult  conditions.  The  first  of  these  relates  to  the  preparation 
of  the  soil,  the  second  to  the  development  of  plants  whicli  will  live  when 
transplanted. 

In  general  you  will  find  it  advantageous  to  dig  the  soil  up  quite  thor- 
oughly before  planting.  It  is  good  practice  to  do  this  digging  in  the  fall 
where  trees  or  shrubs  are  to  be  planted  in  the  spring.  If  a  dressing  of  barn- 
yard manure,  or  of  sea-weed,  fish  waste  or  similar  material  can  be  put  on  in 
the  fall  this  will  be  an  additional  and  important  advantage. 

After  trees  and  shrubs  are  planted,  especially  during  the  first  year, 
it  is  quite  important  that  they  be  cultivated  several  times  with  a  heavy  hoe. 
This  will  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition,  will  keep  down  weeds,  and  will 
greatly  assist  the  young  plants  through  their  most  critical  period. 

All  trees  and  shrubs  can  be  transplanted  much  more  successfully  from 
cultivated  soil  than  from  the  open  fields  where  they  are  growing  wild.  This 
difference  becomes  vital  when  conditions  are  as  contrary  as  upon  the  soil 
of  the  Old  Cemetery.  I  would  urgently  recommend  therefore  that  you  es- 
tablish a  small  nursery  upon  some  piece  of  good  garden  land  which  you  may 
be  able  to  secure  for  a  time,  and  that  you  stock  this  nursery  with  small  plants 
of  such  trees  and  shrubs  as  you  are  likely  to  require.  These  small  plants 
may  be  secured  from  the  fields  and  should  be  taken  in  large  quantities  in 
order  to  allow  for  a  considerable  percentage  of  loss.  In  the  nursery  they 
should  be  kept  hoed  and  cultivated,  but  need  not  be  irrigated.  After  one  or 
two  years  in  the  nursery  they  may  be  transplanted  to  their  permanent  po- 
sitions with  comparative  certainty  of  their  growing. 

The  incidental  suggestions  with  respect  to  walks,  steps,  etc.,  made 
during  our  mutual  discussion  hardly  need  to  be  reported  here. 

If  I  can  be  of  any  further  service  to  you  in  any  connection,  I  trust  you 
will  command  me. 

I  am 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

Frank  A.  Waugh, 

Landscape  Gardener. 
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CEMETERY    IMPROVEMENT 

Form  of  Report 

Any  written  report  of  this  kind  should  take  a  definite  form, 
substantially  as  follows : 

1.  Address:  It  should  be  addressed  to  some  person,  com- 
mittee, corporation  or  society  responsible  for  the  work.  This  is 
the  party  spoken  of  by  the  landscape  gardener  as  his  client. 

2.  Statement  of  problem:  The  report  should  begin  with  a  very 
brief  statement  of  the  problem,  telling  where  the  property  is  and 
adding  any  essential  facts. 

3.  Existing  conditions:  Next  should  follow  a  statement  of  ex- 
isting conditions,  especially  such  as  have  a  material  bearing  on  the 
problem. 

4.  Solution:  Now  follows  the  main  statement  of  recommen- 
dations, with  any  argument  which  may  be  necessary  to  its  support. 

5.  Details:  Next  the  various  details  should  be  taken  up,  es- 
pecially practical  directions  for  carrying  out  the  work. 

6.  Estimates:  The  probable  cost  of  carrying  out  the  recom- 
mended improvements  should  be  estimated  as  closely  as  possible. 

Cemetery  Improvement 

Nearly  all  old  cemeteries  present  the  same  defects.  The  fol- 
lowing points  must  usually  be  considered: 

1.  Clean  up:  The  place  must  be  cleaned  up  and  put  in  order, 
fences  repaired,  monuments  straightened  up,  roads  put  in  order, 
etc. 

2.  Regrade:    Very  often  the  lawns  need  grading. 

3.  Reseed:  The  lawns  nearly  always  need  reseeding,  removal 
of  weeds,  or  other  attention  to  the  grass. 

4.  Plant  Trees:  Occasionally  one  finds  a  cemetery  which  is 
overplanted  with  trees.  The  more  common  case  is  a  lack  of  trees, 
especially  good  ones.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  common 
tendency  toward  a  predominant  growth  of  evergreens  is  altogether 
appropriate.     Certainly  the  best  landscape  cemeteries  in  America 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

are  characterized  rather  by  their  growth  of  large  deciduous  species, 
such  as  oaks,  maples  and  elms. 

5.  Plant  Shrubbery:  A  certain  amount  of  good  hardy  shrub- 
bery adds  greatly  to  the  landscape  charm  of  any  planting.  Such 
treatment  is  suitable  to  most  cemeteries. 

6.  The  development  of  broad  landscape  features,  such  as  ponds, 
running  water,  woodland  masses  or  open  meadows,  wherever  pos- 
sible, will  nearly  always  be  desirable. 

7.  Restriction  and  regulation  of  monuments  is  an  essential 
feature  of  the  management  in  many  of  the  best  cemeteries,  but  is 
not  practicable  everywhere. 

8.  Perpetual  care  is  often  provided  through  invested  trust 
funds.  Such  endowments  are  always  desirable  where  they  can  be 
established  under  stable  management. 

Assignment 

After  this  study  each  pupil  should  be  required  to  examine  some 
cemetery  and  write  a  report.  These  reports  should  be  examined, 
compared  and  criticized  to  the  fullest  extent  possible  under  limi- 
tations of  time. 

Readings 

Weed,  Modern  Park  Cemeteries,  Chicago,  1912. 

SiMONDs,  Landscape  Cemeteries,    in   Bailey   Standard   Cyclopedia   of 

Horticulture,  Vol.  IV,  p.  1807,  New  York,  1916. 
SiMONDS,  Landscape  Gardening,  Chap.  XVII,  New  York,  1920. 


230 


LESSON   48 

Country  Road  Systems 

HIS  lesson  is  intended  to  raise  certain  questions  with 
regard  to  the  layout  of  country  road  systems.  It 
is  hardly  possible  in  the  short  space  of  an  elemen- 
tary chapter  to  answer  these  questions.  Indeed 
we  may  doubt  whether  they  have  ever  been  fi- 
nally answered.  It  certainly  is  dangerous  to 
dogmatize  regarding  these  matters. 

Illustrations 

Figure  113  shows  the  road  system  in  a  small  section  of  Franklin 
County,  Mass.,  where  the  land  is  very  hilly,  almost  mountainous. 

Figure  112  shows  a  similar  area  in  Barnes  and  Cass  Counties, 
North  Dakota.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  this  second  plan 
covers  an  area  in  which  the  roads  are  laid  on  section  lines  of  the 
original  government  survey.  In  the  other  illustration  the  road 
system  grew  up  under  use. 

Discussion 

The  general  road  plan  however  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  everyone  who  lives  in  the  country,  and  even  to  those 
who  live  in  the  city  and  drive  through  the  country.  Where  such 
radical  differences  exist  as  those  shown  between  these  two  plans 
the  question  very  naturally  arises  whether  one  system  is  better 
than  the  other.  Careful  students  of  the  subject  generally  consider 
that  the  lattice-work  system  provided  by  the  government  survey 
and  shown  in  Figure  112  is  defective  and  less  satisfactory  than  the 
natural  web  of  roads  which  grows  up  in  response  to  definite  local 

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Fig.  112.    Typical  Road  Plan  in  Government  Survey  Area 


demands  and  which  conforms  to  the  natural  topography  as  does  the 
road  system  shown  in  Figure  113. 

The  important  point  in  reference  to  the  natural  system  (Figure 
113)  is  that  it  follows  the  natural  water  courses  and  the  most  feasible 
topographic  lines.  The  section  here  represented  is  in  fact  very 
hilly,  almost  mountainous,  with  high  stony  hills,  and  it  would  be 
utterly  impossible  to  run  the  public  roads  in  straight  lines.  Even 
on  level  land  like  that  found  in  large  areas  of  the  middle  western 
states  there  are  objections  to  the  lattice-work  system.  In  many 
parts  of  the  country  there  are  more  roads  than  are  needed;  in 
thickly  settled  sections  there  are  fewer.     Obviously  the  mileage  of 

232 


COUNTRY    ROAD     SYSTEMS 


Fig.  113.     Typical  Section  of  New  England  Roads 


the  road  system  ought  to  be  roughly  proportionate  to  the  density 
of  population. 

The  arbitrary  location  of  these  roads  on  section  lines  often  places 
them  on  disadvantageous  terrain  when  even  a  small  shift  in  one 
direction  or  another  would  have  placed  the  road  on  much  easier 
grade  or  would  avoid  bad  cuts  and  fills  or  bridges. 

Another  serious  defect  of  the  checker-board  system  is  the  lack 
of  diagonal  lines.  This  is  so  serious  that  it  has  been  corrected  in  a 
few  instances  and  must  be  extensively  corrected  in  the  future. 
Straight,  diagonal  trunk  lines  are  now  needed  in  many  places,  es- 
pecially between  important  cities  and  towns. 

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Studies 

Find  the  necessary  maps  and  from  these  draw  off  at  large  scale 
the  road  plan  of  your  neighborhood  covering  at  least  one  township. 
If  this  map  can  be  taken  from  the  maps  of  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  it  will  be  possible  also  to  insert  upon  the  student's 
map  some  of  the  contours,  and  these  will  be  of  much  value  in  study- 
ing the  location  of  roads. 

The  following  questions  should  then  be  answered  by  every 
student.  If  these  questions  can  be  freely  discussed  in  class  the 
results  will  be  particularly  good. 

1.  What  type  of  road  plan  is  represented  in  our  neighborhood? 

2.  Is  it,  broadly  speaking,  the  best  type  for  the  needs  of  the 
present  day? 

3.  What  improvements  might  be  made  in  details  (referring 
only  to  locations)?  Could  some  of  these  roads  be  relocated  to  ad- 
vantage? Could  some  of  them  be  closed  altogether?  Could  any 
new  roads  be  opened  to  the  public  benefit?  Especially  could  new 
trunk  lines  be  opened  between  important  centers? 

Readings 

Bailey,  The  New  Map  of  the  Country,  in  The  Holy  Earth. 
Waugh,  Rural  Improvement,  Chap.  III. 


234 


LESSON   49 

Trees 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  acquaint  the  pupil 
with  the  more  important  species  of  trees  used  in 
landscape  gardening,  and  especially  those  which 
thrive  in  his  own  neighborhood. 

General  Facts 

Trees  may  be  classified  in  various  ways,  according  to  their 
botanical  relationships,  according  to  hardiness,  according  to  height, 
etc.  A  few  of  the  distinctions  most  important  in  landscape  garden- 
ing are  the  following: 

Deciduous  trees  are  those  which  shed  their  leaves  in  winter; 
evergreen  trees  are  those  which  hold  their  leaves  through  the  winter. 
A  majority  of  the  most  valuable  evergreen  trees  are  cone-bearers 
(such  as  pine,  spruce,  hemlock),  but  there  are  also  broad-leaved 
evergreens,  such  as  the  live  oaks. 

Exotic  trees  are  those  not  native  to  a  given  region,  especially 
those  native  to  other  continents.  Native  trees  have  certain  ad- 
vantages, particularly  in  naturalistic  landscape  gardening. 

The  size  to  which  a  given  species  usually  grows  obviously  has  a 
bearing  upon  its  use  in  landscape  gardening. 

Studies 

The  pupil  must  become  sufficiently  acquainted  with  trees  to 
recognize  all  the  more  important  species  instantly.  This  is  obliga- 
tory. The  best  way  to  acquire  this  knowledge  is  through  study 
of  the  trees  themselves  with  the  help  of  a  competent  instructor.  In 
the  absence  of  an  instructor  who  knows  trees  the  student  must  find 

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other  means  of  positive  identification.     Good  books  for  this  pur- 
pose are  Gray's  "Manual  of  Botany";    Sargent's  "Manual  of  the 

Trees  of   North    Amer- 
^  ica";      McFarland's 

"  Getting      Acquainted 
with  the  Trees. " 

The  most  impor- 
tant kinds  of  trees  for 
landscape  work  are 
enumerated  in  the  fol- 
lowing lists: 

Deciduous  Trees 

Ash:  Three  or  four 
species  of  native  ash 
are  excellent  for  mass 
planting  on  suitable 
soils,  usually  bottom 
lands  or  wet  situations. 
They  are  not  so  good  as 
specimens  or  lawn  trees. 
Beech:  The  native 
beech  is  a  splendid  tree 
where  it  can  be  grown. 
The  purple-leaved  beech 
and  the  fern-leaved  beech  are  interesting  curiosities  and  very 
satisfactory  if  one  likes  that  sort  of  thing. 

Birch:  Birches  have  long  been  favorite  specimens  for  front 
lawns  and  cemeteries.  This  fact  indicates  how  uncritical  is  the 
taste  which  selects  them.  From  the  standpoint  of  landscape  gar- 
dening all  the  birches  are  excellent  for  woodland  planting,  especially 
for  the  borders  of  park  woodlands. 

Catalpa:    These  trees  are  not  very  valuable  except  that  they 


The  American  Elm 


236 


TREES 


will  succeed  in  many  hot,  dry  situations  where  better  trees  cannot 
be  grown.     The  flowers  are  rather  attractive. 

Coffee  Tree  {Gymno- 
cladus):  This  tree  makes 
a  good  specimen  of  con- 
siderable dignity. 

Elm:  The  American 
elm  is  the  favorite  street 
tree  wherever  it  can  be 
grown  and  it  succeeds 
over  a  rather  wide  range. 
It  is  also  a  desirable 
specimen  or  lawn  tree, 
though  it  must  have 
considerable  room. 
Aside  from  this  one  spe- 
cies, other  elms  are  in- 
teresting but  are  of  no 
great  importance. 

Ginkgo:  A  curious 
exotic  from  Japan  worth 
using  as  an  occasional 
lawn  specimen. 

Honey  Locust:  This 
species  makes  a  good 
shade  tree,  especially  on 

the  bottom  lands  of  the  central  Mississippi  valley, 
pruned  it  makes  a  first  rate  large  hedge. 

Horse  Chestnut:  Excellent  for  many  different  uses.  Makes  a 
good  lawn  specimen,  can  be  sheared,  (this  being  a  frequent  method 
of  treatment  in  Europe)  and  is  especially  desirable  for  planting  in 
narrow  streets  where  living  conditions  are  difficult. 

Linden:  The  European  lindens  make  very  pretty  trees  in  the 
states  along  the  eastern  seaboard.     The  American  hnden  is  worthy 


Fig.  115.    Soulang's  Magnolia 


If  vigorously 


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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

of  planting  occasionally,  preferably  on  larger  grounds  and  on  good 
rich  land  in  the  middle  states. 

Magnolias:  Certain  species  are  characteristic  of  the  South, 
but  other  kinds  can  be  grown  as  far  north  as  the  Great  Lakes.  They 
are  desirable  mainly  on  account  of  their  showy  flowers. 


Fig.  116.    The  Sugar  Maple 


Maples:  Here  we  have  some  of  the  noblest  trees  anywhere 
known.  The  common  sugar  maple  is  one  of  the  best.  The  soft  or 
silver  maple  is  highly  serviceable  throughout  the  middle  states  where 
it  is  extensively  used  as  a  shade  tree  and  for  lawn  planting.  The 
Norway  maple  {Acer  platanoides)  makes  a  good  lawn  or  street  tree. 
The  ash-leaved  maple  or  box-elder  is  a  very  poor  sort  of  tree  except 

238 


TREES 


that  it  will  withstand  severe  drouth  and  cold  and  can  therefore  be 
used  on  the  most  exposed  locations  in  the  northwestern  plains. 

Oak:  Another  genus  containing  a  number  of  our  noblest  trees. 
The  best  for  landscape  gardening  are  probably  the  white  oak,  the 
swamp  white  oak,  scarlet 
oak,  pin  oak,  red  oak 
and  mossy-cup  oak. 
Popular  prejudice  does 
the  oaks  an  injustice  in 
believing  them  to  grow 
very  slowly.  They  are 
in  fact  most  satisfactory 
trees  wherever  planted 
on  reasonably  good  soil. 

Poplars:  These 
trees  are  particularly 
useful  on  account  of 
their  rapid  growth,  the 
Carolina  poplar  espe- 
cially so.  However  they 
are  short  lived  and  have 
other  defects  so  that  they 
should  not  be  planted 
where  better  trees  can  be 
grown.  The  Lombardy 
poplar  on  account  of  its 
peculiar  form  is  chosen 
for  special  effects. 

Sweet  Gum:  Suitable  for  the  middle  and  southern  states  — 
an  attractive  tree  giving  bright  colors  in  autumn. 

Sycamore,  Plane  Tree  or  Buttonwood:  The  American  plane 
tree  makes  a  large  showy  specimen.  It  is  most  at  home  on  moist 
land  along  streams,  etc.     The  European  plane  tree  is  a  little  more 


BuK  Oak  in  Winter  Dress 


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TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

formal  and  makes  a  rather  better  lawn  specimen.     It  does  well  for 
street  planting  where  not  too  crowded. 

Tulip  Tree:  (Liriodendron)  Makes  a  large  tree  and  is  ver^^ 
satisfactory  where  it  has  room  enough. 

Walnut:  The  native  black  walnut  is  worth  planting  in  the 
middle  states.  The  Japanese  walnuts  make  good  trees  when  prop- 
erly placed  in  park  plantings. 

Willow:  There  are  many  species  of  willows  which  can  be  used 
making  excellent  effects  especially  on  low  land  and  along  water 
courses. 

Small  Trees 

There  are  several  small  trees,  some  of  them  hardly  more  than 
shrubs,  which  are  exceedingly  useful  to  the  landscape  gardener. 
Amongst  these  the  apple  should  have  prominent  mention.  The 
common  apple  tree  is  a  very  desirable  feature  on  many  home  grounds 
and  is  indeed  well  adapted  for  certain  uses  in  park  planting.  The 
ornamental  apples,  such  as  Bechtel's  and  Parkman's  crabs,  are 
effective  ornamental  trees. 

The  hawthorns  also  fall  into  this  class  of  small  trees.  They 
are  of  considerable  importance  in  landscape  gardening. 

Various  species  of  plums  are  also  useful.  In  this  list  may  also 
be  placed  the  Buffalo  berry  (Shepherdia),  valuable  on  the  north- 
western plains;  also  the  mountain  ash  (Sorbus)  valuable  in  the 
north. 

Evergreen  Trees 

Cedars:  The  native  red  cedar  or  juniper  makes  a  striking  small 
tree  which  thrives  on  dry  warm  upland 

Arborvitae  or  white  cedar  is  a  characteristic  tree  in  northeastern 
states  along  swamps  and  lake  shores.  It  is  valuable  chiefly  as  a 
hedge  tree. 

Hemlock:  Makes  an  excellent  hedge  when  carefully  pruned 
and  is  a  good  tree  for  mass  planting  in  cool  soils  with  northern  ex- 
posures. 

240 


TREES 


Pines:  The  pines  are  unquestionably  the  noblest  of  our  conif- 
erous trees.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  landscape  architect  they 
are  best  adapted  to  large  mass  plantings  where  something  like  forest 
conditions  can  be  established.  The  American  white  pine  is  the  best 
species  for  landscape  use,  though  there  are  other  kinds  which  are 
worth  while  under  special  conditions. 

Retinespora:  These  are  Japanese  species  extensively  grown 
in  the  nurseries  for  ornamental  effects.  They  are  valuable  for  fancy 
groups  and  small  masses. 

Spruce:  The  Norway  spruce  is  a  favorite  for  landscape  plant- 
ing and  though  it  is  short  lived  may  be  widely  used.  The  Colorado 
blue  spruce  has  had  an  extraordinary  vogue  and  has  been  greatly 
overplanted.  The  spruces  make  good  hedge  plants  and  wind-breaks. 
Outside  of  this  use  they  are  more  valuable  for  large  forest-like  plant- 
ings than  for  individual  specimens  on  lawns. 


241 


LESSON   50 

Hardy  Shrubs 

HIS  lesson  should  introduce  the  student  to  the 
study  of  shrubs.  It  is  a  study  however  which 
will  require  long  and  serious  application  before 
a  knowledge  of  these  indispensable  materials  is 
secured  sufficient  to  guide  the  landscape  gardener 
in  his  daily  work. 

Discussion 

Shrubs  are  important  in  every  type  of  landscape  gardening  but 
especially  in  the  free  naturalistic  style  as  practiced  in  England  and 
America. 

American  practice,  based  upon  sound  esthetic  reasons,  gives 
strong  preference  to  hardy  native  species.  Besides  those  species 
strictly  native  to  this  continent  there  are  a  number  so  far  domesti- 
cated as  to  be  accepted  to  horticultural  citizenship  without  further 
question.  Amongst  these  the  garden  lilac  stands  preeminent,  but 
other  shrubs  which  are  so  fully  naturalized  as  to  be  used  freely  in 
any  plantings  are  mock  orange  (syringa),  some  of  the  spireas,  the 
Japanese  barberry  and  the  privets. 

Shrubs  are  particularly  useful  in  making  foundation  plantings, 
in  forming  screens  or  borders  along  boundaries,  and  in  foreground 
planting  in  front  of  trees. 

Shrubs  should  nearly  always  be  massed,  several  plants  of  a 
species  being  put  together  with  few  species  in  any  one  group.  To 
harmonize  several  species  in  one  group  requires  considerable  skill 
and  should  be  undertaken  only  by  landscape  planters  of  experience. 
Shrubs  are  seldom  very  attractive  when  used  as  single  specimens, 

242 


HARDY    SHRUBS 


Fia.  118.     The  Springtime  Show  of  Lilacs 


a  method  of  planting  too  frequently  seen  on  the  grounds  of  laymen 
who  have  no  education  in  horticulture  or  landscape  gardening. 

The  following  list  includes  the  more  important  genera  and 
species : 

Alder:  The  alders  are  coarse  shrubs  or  small  trees  best  suited 
to  planting  along  water  courses,  the  margins  of  ponds  or  in  swampy 
land. 

Azalea:  Several  species  are  very  attractive  in  blossom.  The 
most  popular  are  perhaps  the  swamp  pink  (A.  nudiflorum)  and 
Vasey's  azalea  {A.  Vaseyi). 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  119.    Rhododenbkons  in  Flower 


Amorpha  or  false  indigo  makes  a  large  coarse  shrub  with  pin- 
nate leaves  and  is  suitable  for  coarse  background  planting. 

Aralia,  Angelica  or  Hercules  Club  makes  a  large  coarse  tree-like 
shrub  suitable  for  special  effects. 

Acanihopanax  pantaphyllus  is  a  hardy  vigorous  thorny  shrub 
of  considerable  value  in  general  landscape  work. 

Barberry:  The  barberries  will  stand  considerable  shade  and  are 
valuable  on  this  account.  They  also  make  good  hedges.  The 
Japanese  barberry  is  particularly  hardy  and  neat  and  has  accord- 
ingly been  extensively  used  in  mass  plantings,  shrubbery  borders, 
foundation  plantings,  etc. 

Buckthorn    (Rhaninus):    An    excellent    hedge    plant    formerly 

244 


HARDY    SHRUBS 


quite  popular  and  worthy  of  more  general  planting  at  the  present 
time. 

Buttonbush  (Cephalanthus)  is  a  coarse,  hardy,  rather  attractive 
shrub  suitable  for  planting  along  pond  shores. 

Caragana  or  Siberian  pea  tree  is  valuable  chiefly  because  of 
its  exceeding  hardiness. 

Currant:  Several  members  of  this  genus,  especially  the  Mis- 
souri currant,  make  good  shrubs. 

Deutzia:  This  group  includes  some  of  the  best  lawn  shrubs, 
especially  D.  gracilis  and  D.  lemoinei. 

Dogwood:  Several  of  the  dogwoods  are  highly  desirable  for 
landscape  work.  Those  to  be  especially  mentioned  are  the  red 
branched  species,  Cornus  stolonifera,  C.  alba  and  C.  sanguinea,  also 
the  white  fruited  dogwood  C.  candidissima.  The  very  popular 
flowering  dogwood  C.  florida  is  more  of  a  tree  than  a  shrub. 

Elder:  Two  native  American  species  of  elder  are  valuable  for 
park  work. 

Forsythia:  Three  species  are  commonly  offered  in  nursery- 
men's catalogs,  all  of  them  highly  valuable  for  all  kinds  of  land- 
scape planting. 

Fringe  Tree  (Chionanthus) :  A  large  coarse  rather  showy  shrub 
of  only  moderate  value. 

Hydrangea:  The  common  Hydrangea  paniculata  grandiflora  is 
one  of  the  most  showy  shrubs  grown  and  too  much  used  on  that 
account.  Another  over-popular  sort  is  Summer  Snowball  (Hydrangea 
arborescens  sterilis).     The  oak-leaved  hydrangea  is  also  a  good  shrub. 

Honeysuckle:  Several  species  of  honeysuckle  make  good  shrubs, 
especially  the  Tartarian  (Lonicera  tartarica)  and  Morrow's  (L.  Mor- 
rowi). 

Kerria:  A  small  fine  shrub  excellent  for  foundation  plantings 
and  other  close  work. 

Japanese  Quince:  A  good  shrub  which  has  gone  somewhat  out 
of  fashion  in  recent  years.     Makes  an  excellent  hedge. 

Lilac:    This  is  one  of  the  old  favorites  and  most  meritorious 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

of  all  shrubs.  It  is  best  to  use  the  carefully  selected  named  vari- 
eties. The  lilac  by  its  domestic  character  is  especially  suited  to 
home  grounds. 

Ninebark,  sometimes  called  Spirea  opulifolia.  A  large  coarse- 
limbed  shrub  excellent  for  mass  planting. 

Oleaster  or  Elaeagnus:  Two  or  three  species  of  excellent  hardy 
small  shrubs. 

Redbud  (Cercis  or  Judas  Tree):  Showy  in  early  spring  but 
otherwise  of  no  great  value. 


Fig.  120.     The  Native  Prairie  Rose  —  Rosa  setigera 


Rhododendron:  This  group  includes  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant broad-leaved  evergreens.  The  growing  of  rhododendrons  is 
something  of  a  specialized  art  and  there  are  many  localities  where 
they  cannot  be  grown  even  with  the  utmost  skill.  Where  they  suc- 
ceed they  are  very  showy  and  useful. 

246 


HARDY    SHRUBS 


Roses:  There  are  many  species  and  varieties  of  hardy  shrubby 
roses  which  are  valuable  in  park  planting.  Perhaps  the  prairie 
rose  (R.  setigera)  is  the  best  of  these.  Many  of  the  dwarf  ramblers, 
multiflora  roses,  sweet  briars,  the  Japanese  Rosa  rugosa  and  other 
varieties  must  be  given  careful  consideration  in  any  sort  of  planting. 

Pachysandra:  A  very  low  growing  herbaceous  shrub  especially 
valuable  as  a  ground  cover. 

Pearl  Bush  (Exochorda),  a  large  upright  rather  coarse  shrub  with 
cheerful  white  flowers. 

Privet:  There  are  several  species  of  privet,  all  of  them  highly 
valuable.  They  will  grow  in  shady  spots  where  very  few  species 
will  succeed.  Their  hardiness  and  their  glossy  green  foliage  make 
them  excellent  in  foundation  plantings  and  general  shrub  masses, 
while  they  are  hardly  surpassed  anywhere  for  hedge  plantings. 

Spice  Bush  (Calycanthus) :     Useful  in  general  shrubbery  masses. 

Spirea:  This  genus  contains  a  number  of  species  of  the  highest 
value  in  landscape  work.  The  most  popular  are  the  Bridalwreath 
(S.  Van  Houttei)  S.  Thunbergii,  S.  callosa,  S.  prunifolia  and  the 
popular  but  ill-colored  Anthony  Waterer. 

Snowberry:  A  delicate,  attractive  shrub  valuable  for  its  white 
berries  borne  through  the  autumn  and  winter.  To  this  genus 
Symphoricarpos  belongs  also  the  Coralberry,  a  good  hardy  shrub 
with  pink  fruit. 

Sumac:  The  best  species  in  this  important  genus  are  the  smooth 
sumac  (Rhus  glabra)  the  stag-horn  sumac  {R.  typhina)  and  the  aro- 
matic sumac  {R.  aromatica). 

Syringa,  Mock  Orange  or  Philadelphus,  one  of  the  old  favorites: 
A  large  strong-growing  rather  coarse  shrub  with  beautiful  fragrant, 
white  flowers.     Some  of  the  newer  hybrid  varieties  are  excellent. 

Viburnum:  A  number  of  species  in  this  genus  are  valuable  for 
garden  planting.  The  best  ones  are  V.  acerifolium,  V.  cassinoides, 
V.  dentatum,  V,  lantana,  V.  lentago,  the  high-bush  cranberry  (V. 
opulus)  the  snowball  (V.  opulus  sierilis)  the  Japanese  snowball 
(V.  tomentosum  plicanum).     These  are  all  hardy  and  easily  grown. 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fic.   l-'l.     )\  iTHE-RoD,  Viburnum  cabsinoides 

Weigelia  {Diervilla):  Hardy  flowering  shrubs  and  generally 
useful. 

Willows:  There  are  many  shrubby  species  of  willows  which 
can  be  effectively  employed  in  landscape  planting.  Many  of  these 
are  most  effective  in  shrubbery  plantings  when  cut  back  every  year 
or  two  and  allowed  to  sprout  from  the  ground. 


Study 

It  is  essential  that  the  pupil  give  extended  and  faithful  study  to 
this  interesting  and  endless  subject.  Acquaintance  should  be  made 
with  all  the  shrubs  cultivated  in  the  vicinity,  and  they  should  be 

248 


HARDY     SHRUBS 


positively  identified  with  their  proper  names.  The  pupil  should 
then  make  an  extended  notebook  recording  the  height  to  which 
they  grow,  time  of  flowering,  character  of  flowers  and  foliage,  soil 
requirements  and  any  other  practical  information  which  may  come 
to  light. 

Every  school  grounds  and  college  campus  should  have,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  a  good  collection  of  trees  and  shrubs  planted 
partly  with  a  view  to  teaching  of  this  sort.  But  every  good  teacher 
will  extend  his  instruction  far  beyond  the  home  campus,  and  will 
visit  the  best  parks,  private  grounds  and  nurseries  within  reach. 
Equally  detailed  and  careful  attention  should  also,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  be  given  to  the  study  of  native  materials  growing  in  the  wild. 

Readings 

Bailey's  "Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture,"  invaluable  at 
many  other  points,  is  particularly  useful  for  its  descriptions  of  shrubs. 

The  catalogs  of  good  nurseries  constitute  about  the  best  litera- 
ture available  in  this  field  and  every  teacher  should  collect  a  supply 
for  his  classes. 

Kirkegaard's  "Trees,  Shrubs,  Vines  and  Herbaceous  Perennials,'* 
Boston,  1912,  is  a  specially  handy  reference  work. 


249 


LESSON   51 

Climbing  Vines 

HIS  lesson  is  designed  to  introduce  the  subject  of 
climbing  vines  and  their  use  in  landscape  garden- 
ing. 

Uses 

Vines  are  employed  in  landscape  gardening 
for  several  different  purposes.  Doubtless  the 
most  popular  use  is  upon  house  porches  where  vines  are  grown  for 
shade,  ornament  and  to  give  some  privacy.  Climbers  of  other 
kinds,  such  as  Japanese  ivy,  are  used  on  brick,  stone  or  stucco 
walls,  sometimes  even  upon  wooden  buildings,  mainly  for  ornament. 
Rightly  used  they  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  certain  buildings. 
On  pergolas,  arbors  and  summer  houses  vines  become  an  absolute 
necessity.  They  are  effectively  grown  also  on  fences,  whether  of 
wire,  wood  or  stone.  They  are  sometimes  used  to  clamber  down 
rough  banks.  Finally  they  are  used  for  covering  unsightly  objects. 
Vines  should  never  be  used  without  a  definite  purpose.  When 
one  finds  a  vine  (rose  or  clematis)  planted  in  the  midst  of  a  lawn  for 
which  a  special  trellis  must  be  provided  merely  to  support  the  vine, 
it  is  then  obvious  that  the  vine  had  no  original  business  there. 
Any  purposeless  planting  of  this  sort  has  a  highly  evil  psychological 
effect  in  gardening  as  in  all  other  arts. 

List  of  Varieties 

The  following  list  includes  the  vines  most  useful  in  general 
landscape  planting: 

Adinidia:  This  husky-growing  Japanese  vine  thrives  in  the 
northeastern  states.     It  is  rather  too  rank  for  house  porches,  but 

250 


CLIMBING     VINES 


its  clean  growth  and  complete  freedom  from  disease  or  insect  attack 
make  it  fairly  satisfactory  nevertheless. 

Bittersweet:  Two  or  three  species  of  bittersweet  are  all  good, 
but  the  native  {Celastrus  scandens)  is  the  most  desirable,  especially 
on  account  of  its  bright  orange  fruit. 


V\<:,.    122.     AcTi.MoiA  and  Tul'mpet  \'im: 

Clematis:  This  genus  also  contains  a  number  of  attractive 
ornamental  species  some  of  which  are  climbers,  some  trailers  and 
some  merely  shrubs.  The  most  popular  climber  for  use  on  house 
porches  is  probably  the  Japanese  species  {Clematis  paniculata). 
The  species  with  large  purple  flowers  (C.  Jackmanii)  is  also  much 
admired.  The  native  Virgin's  Bower  is  particularly  adapted  to 
covering  stone  fences  and  similar  rough  work. 

Dutchman's  Pipe  {A risto lochia) :  A  strong-growing,  hardy  vine 
with  very  large  dark  green  leaves.  This  should  be  used  where 
heavy  cover  is  desired.     It  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  house  porches. 

Grapes:     All  the  native  American  grapes  are  good  climbers  and 

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are  very  satisfactory  in  this  role  from  the  landscape  gardening  stand- 
point. They  are  especially  adapted  for  use  upon  pergolas,  and  are 
not  wholly  impossible  on  house  porches,  especially  if  used  at  the  rear 
of  the  house.  The  named  horticultural  varieties  bearing  superior 
fruit  should  be  chosen  in  preference  to  others,  although  the  native 
Frost  grape  is  desirable  on  account  of  its  foliage  and  habit  of  growth. 


.^:;m|,;   ^^^0^1 


S'^^ 


Fig.  123.     Clematis  or  Virgin's  Bower 


Honeysuckle:  The  species  of  this  genus  (Lonicera)  are  not  very 
good  climbers  although  the  old-fashioned  trumpet  honeysuckle 
(L.  sempervirens)  is  worth  some  trouble.  Hall's  honeysuckle  is 
more  of  a  clambering  or  trailing  vine  and  is  very  good  for  covering 
fences,  banks  and  waste  places  generally. 

Roses  are  very  popular  in  the  role  of  climbers.  The  ever- 
popular  Crimson  Rambler  has  been  too  widely  planted,  especially 
where  it  appears  against  brick  walls  or  in  other  surroundings  in- 

252 


CLIMBING     VINES 


harmonious  with  its  vivid  color.  Varieties  hke  Lady  Grey,  Dorothy 
Perkins  and  others  of  less  brilliant  hue  are  more  generally  satisfactory 
when  used  immediately  against  dwelling  houses.  There  are  in  fact 
a  great  many  good  varieties  of  climbing  roses  and  popular  selection 
should  not  be  so  strictly  limited  to  a  single  sort. 

Trumpet  Flower  (Tecoma):  A  large  coarse-growing  vine  best 
adapted  for  large  work  on  out-buildings.     It  has  attractive  flowers. 

Woodbine:  The  native  woodbine  is  one  of  the  most  generally 
satisfactory  climbers  in  the  entire  list.  A  closely  related  species 
{Ampelopsis  heterophylla)  is  an  attractive  climber  and  worthy  of 
more  general  use. 

Wistaria:  A  strong  hardy  climber  with  very  attractive  showy 
flowers.     An  old-fashioned  favorite. 

Annuals:  Several  annual  plants  are  used  as  climbers,  the  best 
being  morning-glory,  the  climbing  cucumber  {Echinocystis)  and  the 
hop  vine. 

Study 

As  in  dealing  with  other  groups  of  plant  materials  the  pupil 
should  make  long  and  thorough  studies  of  climbing  vines  in  field 
and  garden.  Extended  notes  should  be  taken.  The  help  of  a 
teacher  or  of  several  teachers  should  be  sought. 

Readings 

The  best  nursery  catalogs  give  much  useful  information  on 
vines. 

Kirkegaard's  "Trees,  Shrubs,  Vines  and  Hardy  Perennials," 
already  referred  to,  is  useful. 


253 


LESSON   52 

Hardy  Perennials 

HIS  lesson  should  introduce  the  pupil  to  the  study 
of  hardy  perennials,  their  names,  their  visual  char- 
acters, their  habits  and  requirements,  and  their 
uses  in  landscape  gardening. 

Uses 

Hardy  perennials  play  a  considerable  role  in  landscape  garden- 
ing. In  home  gardening  and  in  the  making  of  small  formal  gardens 
they  quite  frequently  take  the  front  of  the  stage.  They  are  es- 
pecially desirable  in  developing  "old-fashioned  flower  gardens.'^ 
In  the  more  florid  types  of  park  making  they  are  extensively  used. 
In  general  they  are  desired  for  their  bright  flowers  and  should  be 
preferred  to  tender  annuals  or  greenhouse  goods  which  succumb  to 
the  first  frosts  of  autumn  and  which  have  to  be  replaced  at  consid- 
erable expense  each  spring. 

Leading  Kinds 

There  are  hundreds  of  genera,  thousands  of  species  and  millions 
of  varieties  of  these  hardy  perennials.  New  kinds  are  being  intro- 
duced faster  than  the  ablest  experts  can  learn  their  names.  The 
only  sensible  course  for  the  layman  therefore  is  to  learn  to  know 
a  few  of  the  best  groups,  especially  the  most  old-fashioned  of  all, 
such  as  the  day  lilies,  the  asters,  the  peonies,  the  irises  and  the  lark- 
spurs. Even  these  he  will  know  by  a  few  leading  varieties  instead 
in  the  myriads  of  sorts  grown  by  the  connoisseurs.  He  can  well 
console  himself  with  the  certainty  that  the  oldest  and  most  popular 
varieties  are  in  all  probability  the  best. 

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HARDY    PERENNIALS 


'?■-- 

WMi. 

^B^KK/Kf/m^..  '--^y^^'^RpK^ 

H 

Fig.  124.     Day  Lily  —  Hosta  caeruCea 


This  principle  of  limiting  one's  self  to  a  comparatively  small 
list  of  the  oldest  and  commonest  plants  has  to  be  adopted  by  the 
professional  landscape  gardener,  in  fact,  as  well  as  by  the  layman. 
It  is  merely  a  question  of  drawing  a  line.  The  landscape  gardener 
should  know  a  considerably  longer  list  of  plants  than  the  grocery- 
man  or  the  banker;  the  professional  plantsman  will  know  a  great 
many  more  than  the  landscape  gardener;  but  even  the  nuttiest 
plantsman  must  stop  somewhere.  No  living  man,  sane  or  crazy, 
can  know  all  the  good  plants  in  the  world. 

The  first  duty  of  the  student,  therefore,  is  to  ascertain  what 
are  the  leading  genera  of  old-fashioned  plants,  next  to  learn  what 
are  the  best  species  or  varieties  in  each  group.  This  can  be  done 
only  amongst  the  plants  themselves,  whether  they  are  growing  in 
gardens,  nurseries  or  in  the  wild.  All  these  separate  sources  should 
be  utilized.     The  plants  should  be  studied  everywhere. 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

A  good  teacher  is  highly  desirable  in  these  studies,  but  much 
can  be  done  alone  if  the  pupil  has  the  courage  and  industry  to  keep 
to  it.  Wild  species  may  be  identified  from  Gray's  "Manual  of 
Botany"  or  from  other  good  manuals.     Many  sorts  can  best  be 


Japanese  Gold-Banded  Lily 


looked   up    in    Bailey's    "Standard    Cyclopedia    of   Horticulture.' 

Kirkegaard's  "Trees,  Shrubs,  Vines  and  Herbaceous  Plants"  is  a 

helpful  handbook.     The  nurserymen's  catalogs  should  be  consulted. 

The  following  list  enumerates  the  groups  and  a  few  of  the  species 

usually  preferred: 

256 


HARDY    PERENNIALS 


Anemone:  The  anemones  or  windflowers  are  always  interest- 
ing. The  best  species  for  garden  planting  is  the  late  Japanese 
anemone. 

Asters:  The  native  American  asters  are  splendid  hardy  plants 
when  properly  placed  and  cared  for.  The  New  England  aster  is  a 
great  favorite,  but  at  least  a  dozen  different  species  are  worth  plant- 
ing. 

Columbine  (Aquilegia) :  Dainty  flowers,  native,  imported  and 
hybrid,  mostly  suitable  for  well-kept  gardens. 

Coreopsis:  Hardy  species  with  bright  yellow  flowers  for  garden 
planting. 

Day  Lily  (Hemerocallis) :  This  group  contains  a  number  of 
species  and  varieties  some  of  them  much  better  than  others.  The 
lemon  lily  {A.  flava)  is  popular  and  attractive.  Florham  is  a  larger 
and  finer  variety.  Some  of  the  dwarf  early  orange  flowering  species 
such  as  Middendorfii  are  also  good. 

The  popular  name  day  lily  is  also  applied  to  the  Hostas  or 
Funkias,  of  which  there  are  some  good  sorts  especially  H.  cerulea  and 
H.  grandiflora  alba. 

The  evening  primrose  (Oenothera)  group  contains  several  fine 
showy  yeflow  flowering  varieties  good  for  the  hardy  border. 

Ferns:  Several  species  of  hardy  ferns  are  excellent  for  land- 
scape planting.  They  are  adapted  to  many  different  conditions 
and  soils  and  to  various  landscape  uses. 

Foxglove:  A  brilliant  hardy  popular  plant  always  attractive 
in  perennial  borders. 

Goldenrod:  This  peculiarly  American  genus  includes  several 
very  attractive  species.  Most  of  these  can  be  cultivated  in  the 
garden  to  good  effect  or  can  be  used  in  perennial  borders  when  some 
thought  is  given  to  their  proper  surroundings. 

Helenium,  sometimes  called  sneezeweed,  which  is  not  a  very 
attractive  name  for  a  really  good  plant.  These  are  tall  lusty  plants 
with  showy  flowers  coming  into  bloom  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer. 

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Fig.  120.     Peony  Festiva  Maxima 


Hollyhocks:  Old  garden  favorites,  a  little  difficult  to  grow  but 
worth  the  trouble. 

Iris:  This  group  includes  thousands  of  varieties  of  many 
different  groups.  The  most  important  are  the  German  iris,  Japanese 
iris,  Siberian  iris.  These  are  splendid  garden  plants  which  may  be 
planted  almost  anywhere  and  should  be  freely  used. 

Larkspur:  Always  desirable  on  account  of  their  pure  and 
beautiful  colors,  mostly  various  shades  of  blue.  These  are  par- 
ticularly suitable  for  borders  of  hardy  perennials. 

Lily:  The  old-fashioned  tiger  lily  is  the  hardiest  and  safest 
of  this  group  and  has  various  uses  in  the  garden.  Several  other 
species  grow  well  in  the  herbaceous  border  especially  L.  elegans  and 
its  varieties.  Other  species  do  better  planted  under  shrubbery. 
In  this  list  may  be  included  L.  speciosum,  L.  candidum,  L.  auratum, 
L.  henryi. 

258 


HARDY    PERENNIALS 


Phlox:  The  hardy  perennial  phloxes  can  be  had  from  the 
nurserymen  in  a  long  list  of  varieties.  Special  effort  should  be 
made  to  select  hardy  varieties  of  good  colors  harmonious  amongst 
themselves. 

Pentstemon:  Several  species 
of  this  genus  make  attractive 
border  plants. 

Peony:  Here  we  have  one 
of  the  finest  of  all  garden  flowers. 
It  is  old-fashioned  and  new- 
fashioned,  many  splendid  var- 
ieties having  been  recently  in- 
troduced. Perhaps  the  best  of 
all  for  general  planting  is  Festiva 
Maxima.  Peony  plants  should 
be  left  alone  undisturbed  for  a 
number  of  years  in  order  to  get 
the  best  results. 

Poppy:  The  hardy  oriental 
poppies  are  very  showy  and  may 
be  freely  used  in  border  plant- 
ings. 

Rubekia:  The  popular  flow- 
er in  this  group  is  the  well-known 
"Golden  Glow."     Of  more  value  ii,;   ,.7    s^.N^iowKiis 

are  the  improved  varieties  of  the 
*' black-eyed  Susan"  such  as  R.  fulgida  and  R.  newmanii. 

Spirea:  The  herbaceous  spireas  (Ulmaria)  or  dropworts  are 
most  attractive  plants  worthy  of  general  culture. 

Sunflower:  Two  or  three  species  of  hardy  sunflowers  make 
excellent  border  effects.  They  are  rather  large  and  coarse  and 
should  be  kept  well  in  the  background. 


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Studies 

The  student  should  spend  much  time  in  the  field  identifying 
plants  and  making  written  notes.  In  this  note  taking  he  will  fmd 
the  card  system  best.  Cards  should  be  of  standard  library  sizes, 
either  4"  x  6"  or  3"  x  5'\  If  printed  forms  can  be  made  up  they 
will  help  in  getting  a  good  set  of  notes.  The  form  shown  below  has 
been  used  for  some  years  at  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  and 
found  satisfactory: 


BOTANICAL   NAME 

COMMON   NAME 

Range 

Form Height 

Twig 

Leaf 

Flower 

Fruit 

Soil 

Propagation 

Landscape  use 


260 


LESSON   53 

Foundation  Planting 

HE  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  learn  some  of  the 
principles  governing  foundation  planting  and  to 
become  familiar  with  some  of  the  materials  best 
adapted  to  that  work.  This  study  applies  es- 
pecially to  the  requirements  of  a  modest  dwell- 
ing house  on  a  small  village  lot. 

Definition 

The  term  foundation  planting  is  applied  to  groupings  of  shrub- 
bery, vines  and  herbaceous  plants  (rarely  including  small  trees) 
placed  about  the  base  of  a  dwelling  house,  schoolhouse  or  any  other 
public  or  private  building.  The  most  usual  objects  of  such  a  plant- 
ing are  (a)  to  cover  up  high  and  unsightly  foundations,  {b)  to  break 
up  hard  and  formal  lines  in  the  architecture,  (c)  to  unite  the  build- 
ing with  the  grounds,  (d)  to  secure  privacy.  Practical  observation 
will  show  that  nothing  does  more  to  make  a  dwelling  house  or  other 
building  seem  naturalized  to  its  surroundings  —  to  assume  a  cosy 
home-like  air  —  than  judicious  foundation  plantings. 

Problem 

The  small  dwelling  house  here  presented  was  designed  by  Walker 
and  Gillette,  architects,  for  the  proposed  war-time  development  at 
Ilion,  N.  Y.,  under  direction  of  the  United  States  Housing  Cor- 
poration.*    This  is  a  small  house  of  six  rooms  and  bath,  of  excellent 

*  U.  S.  Housing  Corporation  Report,  War  Emergency  Construction, 
Vol.  II,  p.  186,  U.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  1919. 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


1./* 


1.  Rose,  Crimson  Rambler 

2.  Deutzia  Lemoinei 

3.  Spirea  Van  Houttei 

4.  Philadelphus  coronarius 

5.  Euonymous  radicans 

6.  German  Iris 


Fig.  128.     Foundation  Plantings 

7.  Kerria  japonica  13. 

8.  Lilacs  14. 

9.  Pyramid  arbor  vitae  15. 

10.  Kohlreuteria  paniculata 

11.  Symphoricarpos  racemosus  16. 

12.  Xanthorhiza  apifolia  17. 


Cydonia  japonica 
Privet  hedge,  pruned 
Border  of  ferns  and  other 

shade-loving  plants 
Ampelopsis  heterophylla 
Peonies 


design  and  of  a  type  likely  to  be  highly  useful  in  many  parts  of 
North  America.      (See  also  Figure  61,  page  114.) 

In  the  present  problem  all  other  portions  of  the  grounds  are 
disregarded  except  those  immediately  adjoining  the  house,  but  it  is 

262 


FOUNDATION    PLANTING 


assumed  that  this  house  stands  on  a  small  lot  of  level  ground,  that 
it  is  placed  near  the  street  and  that  the  porch  faces  the  south  as 
indicated  by  the  arrow  on  the  plan. 

The  pupil  should  redraw  this  plan  in  full  detail  to  a  suitable 
scale.  He  should  then  make  a  careful  study  of  the  planting  list  as 
given  and  should  identify  all  the  species  therein  listed.     He  should 


Fig.  129.     Good  Foundation  Plantings  on  Home  Grounds 


make  every  effort  to  visualize  the  finished  result  and  to  understand 
why  each  group  of  plants  have  been  placed  in  the  position  indicated. 
This  being  done  it  will  be  important  for  the  pupil  to  make  a  new 
planting  plan  giving  his  own  ideas  of  appropriate  foundation  plant- 
ings for  the  same  house  but  using  other  material.  In  this  restudy 
the  pupil  should  first  have  especial  regard  to  the  selection  of  plants 
suitable  to  his  own  locality,  and  second  he  should  be  careful  to  sat- 
isfy his  own  preferences.     Such  plantings  are,   to  a  large  extent, 

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matters  of  taste;    and  unless  the  pupil  exercises  his  own  taste  he 
will  hardly  make  any  improvement  in  this  important  matter. 

Observations 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  the  house  as  designed  by  the 
architects  is  placed  unusually  low.  While  this  is  certainly  an  ad- 
vantage from  the  standpoint  of  artistic  effect,  it  greatly  reduces  the 
necessity  for  foundation  plantings. 


Fig.  130.     Foundation  Plantings  Including  Vines  about  a  Large  Building 


Next  it  may  be  said  that  the  planting  list  here  offered  is  un- 
necessarily long.  More  species  are  included  than  should  be  chosen 
were  our  purpose  simply  to  give  the  utmost  dignity  of  artistic  effect. 
The  larger  selection  of  plants  here  used  may  be  justified,  however, 
on  the  ground  that,  on  a  small  home  lot  of  this  character,  the  foun- 
dation plantings  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the  entire  garden.  It 
is  desirable  therefore  to  have  a  considerable  variety  of  plants  for 
the  sake  of  the  interest  which  the  owners  have  in  such  things,  and 

264 


FOUNDATION    PLANTING 


also  for  the  very  practical  reason  that  different  species  are  at  their 
best  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

If  the  pupil  has  sufficient  time  on  this  problem  it  will  be  ex- 
cellent exercise  to  prepare  plans  for  foundation  plantings  using  only 
two  or  three  species.  Such  plantings  can  be  made  highly  effective, 
but  they  hardly  satisfy  the  personal  interest  of  a  family  which  really 
cares  for  plants,  or  indeed  any  family  which  has  any  well  developed 
home  interest. 

General  Principles 

In  designing  foundation  plantings  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind 
certain  principles.  It  is  important  to  remember,  for  example,  that 
these  foundation  plantings  are  a  wholly  secondary  item.  They 
are  secondary  to  the  house,  and  they  should  be  secondary  also  to 
the  broader  plan  for  the  entire  grounds.  Foundation  plantings 
should  not  therefore  claim  attention  to  themselves. 

This  means  definitely  that  showy  plants  of  every  sort,  such  as 
have  bright  colors  or  unusual  forms  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from 
the  foundation  plantings.  On  the  other  hand  one  should  select 
quiet  colors  and  textures  and  plants  which  are  neat  and  homely  in 
their  character.  The  "old-fashioned  plants,"  such  as  have  been 
long  associated  with  domestic  life,  are  especially  suitable. 

Inasmuch  as  these  plantings  are  nearly  always  viewed  at  close 
range  it  is  further  desirable  that  the  textures  be  relatively  fine. 
Coarse  textures  and  bright  colors  should  be  used  only  at  a  distance. 


265 


LESSON  54 

Shrubbery  Border 

,UR  purpose  here  is  to  familiarize  the  pupil  with 
the  use  of  shrubbery  in  landscape  gardening,  es- 
pecially the  methods  very  commonly  followed 
in  planting  small  home  grounds.  On  such  places, 
of  moderate  size,  whether  in  the  city,  the  sub- 
urbs or  on  the  farm,  borders  and  screens  of  shrub- 
bery are  of  the  utmost  value.  The  selection  of 
good  species  and  varieties  and  their  grouping  into  pleasing  combi- 
nations, is  one  of  the  commonest  garden  problems. 

Conditions 

In  the  present  problem  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  screen  sep- 
arating our  own  grounds  from  those  to  the  north  and  to  form  an 
attractive  background  for  the  lawn  and  grounds  in  front.  The 
two  ends  finish  upon  boundary  lines  running  at  right  angles.  It  is 
desired  to  have  shrubs  of  sufficient  variety  to  make  the  planting 
interesting  and  to  present  something  of  beauty  throughout  the 
summer. 

Problems 

The  student  should  undertake  one  or  more  of  the  following 
exercises : 

1.  Redraw  this  planting  plan  to  scale,  and  identify  ah  the  species 
as  named.  Effort  should  be  made  to  vizualize  the  finished  planting 
—  to  imagine  just  how  this  border  will  look  when  mature.  The 
plan  here  is  first  drawn  to  scale  in  pencil  and  then  inked  free-hand. 
This  method  is  recommended  to  the  pupil. 

266 


SHRUBBERY    BORDER 


2.  Substitute  other  species  for  those  named  in  this  planting 
plan.  Such  a  study  in  substitutions  will  be  especially  desirable  for 
students  in  sections  of  the  country  where  these  species  are  not  at 
home,  that  is  outside  the  north-central  and  north-eastern  slates. 


10  0 

W£STf°a°R$ 


A  10         30 


Fig.  131. 

Screen 

AND 

Border 

1. 

3. 
5. 

7. 

Forsythia  viridissima 
Rhus  glabra 
Amygdalus  nana 
Dievrilla  rosea 

2.   Malus  floribunda 
4.    Kerria  japonica 
6.  Lonicera  morrowi 
8.    Cydonia  japonica 

3.  Make  a  substitution  study  using  chiefly  or  exclusively  ever- 
green species. 

4.  Make  a  similar  planting  plan  for  another  measured  border 
on  some  tract  of  land  within  reach  of  the  class.  Due  regard  should 
be  paid  to  orientation,  slope,  character  of  soil  and  other  conditions. 
This  exercise  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  and  should  not  be  omitted. 
Rather  should  the  class  work  out  several  such  plantings. 


Instructions 

A  knowledge  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  to  be  used  is  obviously 
essential  to  any  intelligent  work  upon  this  problem.  The  student 
must  familiarize  himself  with  species  in  the  field  —  as  many  species 
as  possible  and  as  intimately  as  possible.  The  teacher  should  make 
the  largest  practicable  provision  for  acquiring  this  indispensable 
knowledge  of  materials;   but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  a  famil- 

267 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

iarity  with  trees  and  shrubs  is  the  main  part  of  landscape  gardening, 
as  some  persons  appear  to  think. 

In  all  such  plantings  use  comparatively  few  species.  The 
plan  now  reproduced  has  too  many.  Four  different  kinds  would 
make  a  better  design  than  the  eight  here  used;  but  the  larger  num- 
ber is  adopted  in  here  in  order  to  increase  the  interest  during  various 
seasons  of  the  year. 

It  is  essential  that  each  species  be  used  in  mass.  There  should 
be  ten  or  a  dozen  of  a  kind,  and  from  that  number  up  to  100  of  each 
sort. 

Contrasted  with  these  mass  plantings  occasional  individual  or 
specimen  plants  may  be  used.  These  should  be  of  the  finest  sorts 
and  should  appear  at  the  accentuated  points  in  the  planting  (nodes 
or  paragraphs).  In  the  accompanying  plan  the  flowering  crab 
(Malus  floribunda)  and  the  dwarf  almond  (Amygdalus  nana)  are 
used  in  this  way. 

A  very  common  fault  in  such  plantings  is  the  employment  of 
too  many  species  and  too  few  plants  of  a  kind. 

In  work  of  this  sort  avoid  plants  with  coarse  texture  or  of 
unusual  colorings,  especially  all  variegated  sorts  and  those  having 
red  or  yellow  foliage.  Such  homegrounds  plantings  are  subject  to 
the  same  rules  of  taste  as  the  furnishings  in  the  interior  of  the  house 
or  the  clothes  which  one  wears  about  his  daily  business.  Any- 
thing "loud,"  coarse  or  conspicuous  is  evidence  of  a  taste  unculti- 
vated and  unrefined. 

Questions 

Where  is  the  best  shrubbery  planting  in  your  neighborhood? 
If  good  plantings  are  accessible  it  will  be  well  worth  while  for  the 
pupil  to  make  measured  plans  of  them,  identifying  all  plants  and 
entering  the  names  on  his  plan. 

Under  what  circumstances  might  such  conspicuous  trees  and 
shrubs  as  Schwerdler  maple,  Pissard  plum,  variegated  weigelia, 
golden  syringa,  etc.,  be  used? 

268 


LESSON   55 

Mixed  Border 

ERE  we  have  an  opportunity  to  study  a  simple 
planting  and  to  see  how  it  is  worked  out  by  a 
judicious  selection  and  combination  of  trees, 
shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants. 

Procedure 

It  will  be  worth  while  for  each  pupil  to  copy 
this  plan  and  elevation  at  a  larger  scale;  but  the  teacher  may  omit 
this  work  if  he  considers  the  time  thus  saved  is  worth  more  than 
the  practice  in  drawing. 

The  next  step  will  be  to  study  the  materials  used  in  this  com- 
position. The  trees  are  cherry,  Carolina  poplar,  silver  maple,  and 
crab  apple.  The  shrubs  are  Spirea  Van  Houttei,  Eleagnus,  Viburnum 
opulus,  Cornus  alba,  Lonicera  Morrowi  and  three  Juniperus  vir- 
giniana  (red  cedars)  which  may  be  regarded  as  shrubs.  Besides  these 
there  is  a  border  of  herbaceous  perennials  and  annuals.  The  pupil 
should  be  perfectly  certain  that  he  knows  each  one  of  the  species 
here  used  and  can  recognize  it  in  the  field. 

Study 

The  following  observations  should  be  worked  out  by  the  pupil: 

1.  The  planting  runs  in  paragraphs.  That  is  there  are  points 
of  emphasis  separated  by  stretches  of  less  importance.  The  taller 
trees  mark  the  paragraphic  points. 

2.  The  planting  also  falls  into  horizontal  zones.  The  trees 
form  an  upper  and  rear-ward  zone,  the  shrubs  stand  in  front  of  and 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

below  the  trees ;  the  herbaceous  plants  come  next ;  finally  the  mowed 
lawn  comes  in  front  of  all. 

3.   Paragraphic  points  or  points  of  emphasis  should  coincide 
in  all  zones. 


PtR-tNNIAL/  ^„3 
ANNUAL/" 


/TVDY       Of-      PLAN   • 
Fig.  132.    Study  for  a  Mixed  Border 


4.  Bright  colors  should  appear  in  the  nearer  masses  against 
neutral  or  darker  backgrounds. 

5.  Highly  refined  plants  with  delicate  leaves  and  pretty  flowers 
should  be  placed  in  the  foreground;  those  of  coarse  texture  in  the 
background. 

6.  For  best  effect  the  sun  should  fall  on  the  accentuated  points, 
the  shadows  should  fall  in  the  interspaces.  Roughly  speaking  the 
shadows  are  controlled  by  recessing  the  front  line  of  the  planting. 

270 


MIXED    BORDER 


Problem 

Each  pupil  should  now  work  out  a  simple  problem  for  a  screen 
planting  covering  50  to  100  feet  of  border.  These  plans  should  be 
criticized  in  detail  by  the  teacher,  but  the  criticism  which  comes  from 
a  free  comparison  of  all  plans  submitted  by  a  class  is  also  valuable. 

Credit 

This  plan  is  taken  from  "The  Landscape  Garden  Series" 
edited  by  Mr.  Ralph  Rodney  Root,  landscape  architect,  of  Chicago. 


271 


LESSON   56 

The  Native  Landscape 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  introduce  the  stu- 
dent to  the  study  and  appreciation  of  the  natural 
landscape,  and  to  indicate  the  relation  of  such 
study  to  the  art  of  landscape  gardening. 

Argument 

It  ought  to  be  axiomatic  that  landscape 
gardening  draws  its  materials  and  ideals  from  the  landscape.  Even 
the  most  restricted  form  of  architectural  design  still  presents  a 
landscape,  a  landscape  doubtless  diluted,  and  more  like  architecture 
than  hke  the  forest.  Yet  insofar  as  it  is  not  architecture  —  which 
is  to  say  in  just  so  far  as  it  is  landscape  architecture  (i.e.,  landscape 
gardening)  —  it  is  landscape. 

It  will  be  readily  agreed  that  the  native  landscape  serves  with 
special  efficiency  in  supplying  materials  and  models  for  that  form  of 
landscape  gardening  which  we  call  the  natural  style.  This  style  is 
highly  regarded  in  America.  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  it 
enjoys  a  large  preference  among  professional  landscape  gardeners  in 
America  and  an  overwhelming  favor  among  the  laity.  Yet  the 
materials,  the  form  and  the  spirit  of  the  open  landscape  should  be 
sympathetically  understood  by  every  landscape  architect,  no  matter 
how  narrowly  his  practice  may  be  restricted  to  the  most  formal  work. 

The  great  popular  appeal  of  the  native  landscape  and  the  close 
relation  of  landscape  gardening  to  it  are  especially  exemplified  in 
the  rise  of  the  American  system  of  National  Parks.  These  represent 
quite  clearly  and  categorically  the  American  love  for  wild  nature, 
and  the  development  of  such  a  system  of  parks  quite  as  clearly  calls 

272 


THE    NATIVE     LANDSCAPE 


Fig.  133.     Lizard  Head  Peak,  Colorado 


for  the  exercise  of  the  best  talent  in  the  profession  of  landscape 
gardening.  In  estimating  the  scope  and  power  of  this  spontaneous 
popular  movement  one  must  count  with  the  National  Parks  of  the 
United  States,  also  the  National  Parks  of  Canada,  the  National 
Forests  of  both  countries,  the  National  Monuments,  the  state  parks 
and  state  forests.  All  of  these  are  largely  used  for  purposes  of 
recreation  and  health,  which  uses  are  intimately  related  to  the 
preservation  of  the  natural  landscape. 

At  this  point  it  is  important  to  consider  just  what  service  the 
landscape  gardener  may  perform  in  relation  to  these  vast  reserves 

273 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


of  native  landscape.     Broadly  stated   his  professional  duties  fall 
under  three  headings. 

1.  To  conserve  and  protect  the  landscape. 

2.  To  make  it  accessible  to  human  beings. 

3.  To  interpret  the  landscape. 

Under  the  first  head  the  landscape  gardener  cooperates  with 

other  agencies  in  the 
endeavor  to  secure  ad- 
equate reserves  of  land 
and  water  (scenery)  in 
various  forms  (state 
parks  and  forests,  na- 
tional parks,  forests  and 
monuments,  etc.)  to 
protect  these  from  mis- 
use and  private  exploi- 
tation (often  a  very 
serious  task),  to  secure 
adequate  financial  main- 
tenance, and  to  provide 
the  most  efficient  means 
of  administration.  Under 
this  head  fall  also  such 
matters  as  fish  and  game 
protection,  the  provision 
of  wild  life  sanctuaries, 
the  preservation  of  histor- 
ical and  archaelogical 
antiquities  and  the  im- 
measurably important 
problems  of  forest  fire 
protection. 

In  making  the  land- 
scape accessible  the  landscape  engineer  must  first  of  all  make  sure 

274 


Fig.  134.     Multnomah  Falls,  Oregon 


THE    NATIVE    LANDSCAPE 


that  the  various  available  areas  are  severally  put  to  their  highest 
uses.  Some  will  be  best  for  free  camping,  others  for  municipal  and 
industrial  camps,  some 
for  sanitoria,  some  must 
be  kept  untouched  on 
account  of  their  extra- 
ordinary natural  beauty. 
Such  questions  being 
determined,  the  land- 
scape engineer  will  pro- 
vide the  necessary  means 
of  circulation— railroads, 
automobile  roads,  trails, 
etc.,  will  locate  the 
various  camps,  hotels, 
sanitoria,  will  provide 
for  water  supply  and 
sanitation,  and  make  all 
other  provisions  neces- 
sary to  the  end  thai 
men,  women  and  chil- 
dren may  easily  reach  the 
landscapes  reserved  in 
their  behalf  and  may 
comfortably  and  safely 
enjoy  them. 

The  interpretation 
of  the  landscape  is  a 
higher  and  more  diffi- 
cult function,  not  to  be 
fully  expounded  in  a 
paragraph.  We  may  make  use  of  the  analogy  of  the  musician  who 
interprets  the  compositions  of  the  classic  masters.  Thus  the  pianist 
Bauer  is  said  to  be  an  interpreter  of  Litzt,  while  anyone  who  has 

275 


Fig.   135.     One  of  the  Millions 
Canadian  Lakes 


>v  Bkautifol 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

heard  Fritz  Kreisler  play  selections  from  Bach  has  felt  that  that 
classical  and  difficult  music  was  made  much  clearer  and  more 
intelligible  through  the  interpretation  of  the  great  violinist. 

In  like  manner  the  professional  landscape  architect  should  be 
first  of  all  an  artist,  capable  of  seeing,  feeling  and  understanding 
better  than  the  average  man  the  beauties  of  the  landscape,  and 
capable,  too,  of  interpreting  these  beauties  to  others.  Obviously 
this  is  not  an  easy  matter  either  to  practice  or  to  explain,  but  it  is 
none  the  less  of  the  greatest  importance. 

Practical  Study 

For  the  beginner  the  most  fruitful  study  can  be  directed  to 
forming  an  intelligent  acquaintance  with  the  landscape,  beginning 
with  the  landscape  which  surrounds  him  in  his  own  home. 

The  pupil  ought  to  become  personally  familiar  with  as  many 
types  of  landscape  as  practicable.  Such  types  are  almost  endless, 
but  the  following  list  includes  what  seem  to  be  most  important: 

1.  Plains  and  prairies. 

2.  Mountains. 

3.  Hills. 

4.  Forests. 

5.  Lakes. 

6.  Rivers. 

7.  The  sea  and  the  seashore. 

8.  The  cultivated  fields. 

Besides  these  are  many  others,  some  merely  sub-divisions  of 
those  enumerated  above,  others  quite  independent,  such  as  brooks, 
deserts,  volcanoes,  glaciers,  etc. 

The  student  must  begin  by  mastering  the  landscape  of  his 
own  home.  This  means  that  he  must  know  it  in  detail  and  must 
love  it  supremely.  If  his  own  home  landscape  seems  dull  and  unin- 
spiring, no  matter  where  it  may  be,  he  will  never  be  able  to  appro- 
priate and  spiritually  assimilate  any  other  landscape.     Let  each 

276 


THE     NATIVE     LANDSCAPE 


student  therefore  prepare  in  writing  his  answers  to  the  following 
questions : 

1.  What  type  of  landscape  is  predominantly  represented  in 
our  neighborhood? 

2.  What  other  types  may  be  found  within  easy  reach? 

3.  What  is  the  best  piece  of  scenery  in  this  neighborhood? 

4.  Where  may  the  one  best  outlook  or  view  be  obtained? 


Fig.  136.     The  Grain  Fields  Always  make  a  Beautiful  Landscape  —  Colorado 


5.  For  the  development  of  natural  scenery  where  is  the  best 
stretch  of  road  in  this  vicinity? 

6.  Are  there  parks,  picnic  grounds  or  other  reservations  com- 
prising natural  landscape  in  this  vicinity?  Are  there  areas  of  special 
beauty,  such  as  lakes,  streams  or  woods,  which  should  be  so  re- 
served? 

7.  Is  there  good  fishing  and  hunting  in  the  neighborhood? 
Are  there  lakes,  ponds  or  streams  which  might  be  stocked  for  public 
use? 

277 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

8.  Is  there  a  good  "swimmin'  hole"  —  one  or  more?  Might 
there  be  other  swimming  holes  established?  Are  these  on  private 
land?  Could  and  should  such  facilities  be  made  public?  Should 
there  be  similar  bathing  facilities  available  to  the  girls? 

These  questions  should  not  be  answered  from  memory  and 
upon  snap  judgment  but  upon  mature  reflection  and  frequent 
re-examination  of  the  land.  After  each  pupil  has  matured  and 
written  out  these  answers  the  questions  should  be  taken  up  in  de- 
tail for  group  discussion  in  class.  It  is  neither  probable,  necessary 
nor  desirable  that  full  agreement  will  be  reached  on  all  such  questions. 
What  is  important  is  that  they  shall  be  freely  and  fully  considered 
and  that  each  pupil  shall  develop  a  genuinely  personal  point  of  view 
regarding  such  matters. 

Making  photographs  of  scenery  during  such  studies  will  be 
found  most  helpful,  and  an  exhibition  of  such  photographs  with 
contributions  from  many  students  will  have  great  educational  value. 

Readings 

Waugh,  Landscape  Beautiful,  Chap.  I 
Van  Dyke,  Nature  for  its  Own  Sake. 


278 


LESSON   57 

The  Country  Road 

HIS  lesson  is  designed  to  call  attention  to  the 
beauty  and  high  social  serviceability  of  the 
country  roads,  more  especially  of  the  secondary 
roads  and  those  not  largely  used  for  through 
traffic. 

Discussion 

The  astounding  number  of  automobiles  bought  and  used  in 
America  is  a  direct  measure  of  the  popularity  of  the  public  road. 
By  their  purchase  and  maintenance  of  expensive  automobiles  mil- 
lions of  citizens  testify  that  their  favorite  recreation  in  life  is  country 
driving. 

Automobile  drivers  have  been  criticized  for  speeding  through 
the  most  delightful  landscape  with  small  heed  for  the  beauty  of  their 
surroundings.  While  this  criticism  lies  with  some  force  against  a 
few  automobile  drivers  it  surely  does  not  apply  to  the  majority. 
If  the  only  places  for  driving  were  subterranean  tunnels  with  no 
outlook  to  the  sky  or  the  fields,  pleasure  driving  by  automobile 
would  cease  at  once  for  all  and  forever. 

An  instructive  exercise  could  be  provided  for  the  pupils  at  this 
point  should  they  be  stationed  beside  any  good  country  road  to  take 
a  census  of  the  traffic  and  to  determine  as  nearly  as  possible  how 
many  passengers  were  using  the  road  for  business  and  how  many 
for  pleasure.  On  nearly  all  roads  the  pleasure  traffic  would  be 
found  in  a  very  large  majority. 

It  being  therefore  the  incontrovertible  fact  that  country  roads 
are  used  mainly  for  pleasure,  it  is  only  the  part  of  wisdom  to  de- 
velop their  equipment   in   this  direction,  that  is   to   provide  the 

279 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Thncc 


C<Duntr(/Jio<2cf 


Fig.  137.     Map  of  Road 


pleasantest  scenery  and  most  agreeable 
surroundings  possible. 

Delightful  scenery  already  exists  on 
many  country  roads.  In  fact  there  is 
hardly  a  road  anywhere  which  is  not 
interesting  and  there  are  many  stretches 
of  extraordinary  beauty. 

Should  any  intelligent  person,  pref- 
erably a  trained  landscape  architect, 
definitely  set  out  to  realize  the  utmost 
beauty  on  any  given  section  of  country 
road  it  would  be  found  that  much  im- 
provement could  be  made  at  little 
expense.  In  certain  places  outlooks 
could  be  opened  across  fine  stretches  of 
scenery,  vistas  could  be  made  up  and 
down  streams,  better  views  could  be 
prepared  for  farms  and  farm  houses, 
some  undesirable  views  could  be  covered 
by  planting,  new  trees  could  be  set 
along  certain  stretches  of  road,  native 
shrubbery  could  be  encouraged,  also 
native  flowers.  Along  with  native 
trees  and  shrubbery  would  come 
native  birds. 

Indeed  very  much  could  be  done, 
Dnt  it  iS  no;  Inportai:^^  i  1  this  time  to 
e  .  laust  all  tlie  details  of  possible  im- 
provement. We  wish  merely  to  point 
out  the  fact  that  the  road  is  already 
beautiful,  that  it  can  be  made  more  so, 
and  that  the  great  majority  of  men  and 
women  are  already  deeply  drawn  to  this 
type  of  natural  beauty. 

280 


i  it,,  la'j.     Junipers  Along  the  Pasture  Fence  —  View  D 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  140.    Across  the  Fields  from  Viewpoint  A 


Fig.  141.    Looking  Across  the  Valley  from  Standpoint  B 
282 


THE     COUNTRY    ROAD 


Example 

The  photographs  herewith  reproduced  (Figures  138-145)  offer 
one  example  and  a  characteristic  one.  These  were  all  made  on  one 
stretch  of  country  road,  approximately  one  half  mile  in  length,  in 
Franklin  County,  Mass.  With  two  exceptions  they  were  all  made 
in  one  afternoon,  so  that  they  do  not  profit  by  the  kaleideoscopic 
variety  introduced  by  the  changing  seasons.  One  has  still  to  con- 
sider what  this  half-mile  of  road  would  offer  in  the  fetching  days  of 


Fig.  142.     The  F.\hm  House  from  Vikwpuint  L 

early  spring  or  in  autumn  with  the  maples  colored,  or  in  midwinter 
with  a  snow-covered  landscape.  Even  on  this  one  trip,  which  was 
made  in  August,  another  hundred  pictures  could  have  been  taken, 
each  exhibiting  a  view  as  interesting  and  as  beautiful  as  the  samples 
here  shown. 

This  is  what  the  country  roads  are  like.  They  are  at  once  in- 
comparably beautiful  and  supremely  democratic.  They  are  for 
everybody.     Their  beauty  is  not  kept  secretly  for  the  delight  of  an 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


esoteric  clique,  as  are  some  of  the  refinements  of  classic  music  and 
highbrow  art. 

Seeing  the  country  roads  are  thus  the  greatest  art  galleries  in 
the  world,  it  is  highly  important  that  everyone,  and  especially  every 
landscape  gardener,  should  appreciate  their  beauty,  should  help  to 
conserve  and  develop  it,  and  should  do  his  utmost  to  popularize 
and  interpret  it  for  the  common  good. 


Fig.  143.     A  Drink  at  the  Pump  —  at  K 

Equipment 

The  pupil  should  be  provided  with  sketch  block  or  sketch  paper, 
pocket  compass,  and  if  possible  a  good  camera. 

Study 

Each  pupil  should  now  be  assigned  to  the  study  of  a  specified 
section  of  country  road,  not  more  than  one  mile  and  seldom  less  than 
half  a  mile.  Unless  a  very  large  class  has  to  be  assigned  it  will  be 
best  to  let  each  pupil  work  independently  and  alone  on  a  separate 
stretch  of  road.     It  is  by  no  means  necessary  to  the  spirit  and  method 

284 


THE     COUNTRY    ROAD 


of  this  exercise  that  the  pupil  should  study  a  spectacular  or  especially 
"scenic"  road.  The  present  effort  is  rather  to  find  and  to  exhibit 
the  beauties  of  the  com- 
mon everyday  country 
highway. 

Each  pupil  should  now 
give  earnest  and  detailed 
attention  to  the  section 
of  road  assigned  to  him. 
He  should  go  over  it 
several  times,  preferably 
in  different  weathers  and 
at  different  hours  of  the 
day,  not  omitting  the 
night.  He  should  locate 
and  estimate  every  out- 
look, every  tree  or  group 
of  trees,  every  established 
group  of  wild  flowers  or 
shrubbery,  every  resource 
of  beauty  within  the  road- 
way. He  should  consider 
the  interest  of  every  farm 
house  along  the  way  and 
the  beauty  of  all  bordering  farms  —  for  farms  are  beautiful  and 
interesting.  Each  item  in  this  inventory  should  be  recorded  in 
the   notebook. 

It  should  also  be  located  upon  a  sketch  map  which  the  student 
is  to  make  at  the  same  time.  The  preparation  of  such  a  map  (as 
shown  in  Figure  137)  is  made  a  part  of  this  exercise. 

If  possible  these  pictures  should  all  be  photographed.  If  the 
pupil  has  no  camera  he  may  borrow  one.  If  he  is  not  a  photographer 
he  ought  to  be,  and  there  will  never  be  a  better  opportunity  to  learn 
than  right  here. 

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Fig.  144.     The  Cornfield  —  Viewpoint  C 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

The  finished  photographs  should  be  marked  and  referred  to 
their  respective  stations  on  the  map.  If  the  map  is  made  to  a  large 
scale  it  will  be  possible  to  mount  the  photographs  directly  on  the 
map  with  lines  connecting  each  picture  with  its  station.  Such  a 
study  is  instructive  to  the  maker  and  interesting  to  others.     II 


Fig.   145.      In  the  Thick  of  the  Woods  —  from  Viewpoint   E 


several  members  of  a  class  can  bring  together  a  series  of  such  studies 
the  results  will  be  especially  agreeable. 

Finally  the  pupil  should  now  consider  and  report  what  prac- 
ticable changes  can  be  made  in  the  road  thus  studied  in  order  to 
make  it  more  interesting  and  delightful  to  those  who  travel 
there. 

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THE     COUNTRY    ROAD 


Questions 

1.  What  might  practicably  be  done  to  improve  the  scenery 
along  country  roads  in  your  neighborhood? 

2.  By  whom  should  this  be  done?  and  how? 

3.  Are  there  advertising  bill-boards  along  any  of  the  roads 
in  your  neighborhood?  Who  owns  them?  Whom  do  they  benefit? 
How  can  they  be  abolished? 

4.  How  can  travelers  be  made  to  see  and  appreciate  more 
fully  the  beauties  already  existing  along  country  roads? 


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LESSON   58 

Landscape  Types  —  The  Brook 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  make  an  intimate 
study  of  a  specific  landscape  motive  or  what  is 
more  properly  speaking  a  landscape  type,  namely 
a  brook.  This  lesson  is  also  intended  to  serve 
as  a  model  upon  which  the  teacher  will  provide 
other  lessons  with  which  to  introduce  his  pupils 
to  other  landscape  types  and  motives  which  may 
happen  to  be  available  in  their  neighborhood. 

Landscape  Types  and  Motives 

A  landscape  type  may  be  roughly  defined  as  a  generalized  form 
—  one  which  is  widely  repeated.  The  principal  types  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Mountains. 

Hills.  There  are  many  different  kinds  of  hills  forming 
sub-types. 

Plains,  including  prairies  and  deserts. 

Valleys. 

Cultivated  and  inhabited  farming  country. 

The  Ocean. 

Lakes  of  many  sizes  and  kinds. 

Rivers. 

Brooks. 

Forests. 

A  landscape  motive  may  be  roughly  defined  as  the  most  prom- 
inent and  most  frequently  repeated  feature  in  a  given  or  limited  area, 

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LANDSCAPE     TY  PES— THE    BROOK 

as  for  example  in  a  certain  park  or  along  a  certain  scenic  drive. 
Motive  is  synonymous  with  theme  or  subject;  and  as  any  essay, 
sermon,  oration  or  written  treatise  must  have  one  definite  and  un- 
mistakable theme,  so  must  any  good  work  of  landscape  gardening 
have  one  outstanding  and  instantly  recognizable  motive. 

In  the  case  used  for  illustration  in  this  lesson  the  brook  might 
be  taken  as  the  motive  or  theme  for  the  landscape  treatment  of  a 
park.     But  brooks  in  general  constitute  a  landscape  type. 


Fig.   IIG.     Where  the  Brook  Sings 


Argument 

Landscape  gardening  is  to  be  mastered  only  through  the  study 
of  the  natural  landscape,  and  the  natural  landscape  is  to  be  under- 
stood only  through  long,  patient,  sympathetic,  intimate  study  of 
details  —  of  motives  and  types.  The  present  lesson  will  indicate 
how  the  student  may  proceed  to  make  a  detailed  study  of  a  section 
of  a  neighboring  brook.  But  the  same  method  should  be  widely 
apphed  to  the  study  of  other  types  of  landscape. 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


In  particular  the  pupil  should  give  the  most  careful  attention  to 
the  home  landscape  —  for  unless  he  can  see  the  beauty  there  it  is  a 
waste  of  time  to  fare  further.  The  present  lesson  is  illustrated  by 
the  study  of  a  brook  simply  because  this  motive  happens  to  be  ready 

to  the  author's  hand.  The 
present  writer  would  be 
particularly  glad  to  offer 
rather  a  study  of  the 
prairie  motive,  for  the 
reason  that  many  thought- 
less and  unsympathetic 
persons  are  given  to  saying 
that  the  prairie  landscape 
is  dull,  monotonous  and 
uninteresting.  Quite  the 
reverse  is  true,  of  course. 
The  prairie  plains  present 
one  of  the  most  noble  and 
inspiring  types  of  land- 
scape on  this  old  globe, 
and  one  replete  in  beauty 
of  detail  for  those  who 
have  eyes  to  see  and  hearts 
to  feel. 

This  is  why  the  teach- 
er is  especially  urged  to 
provide  ample  opportunity, 
through  other  lessons,  spe- 
cially arranged,  for  the  in- 
timate study  of  the  local 
landscape.  It  would  be  inexcusable  for  pupils  in  Colorado  not 
to  discover  the  beauties  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  or  of  those  in 
South  Dakota  not  to  see  the  glory  of  the  plains. 


Fig.  147.     A  Quiet  Pool 


290 


LANDSCAPE     TYPE  S— THE    BROOK 


Example 

To  illustrate  this  method  of  landscape  study  let  us  consider 
the  brook.  The  accompanying  photographs,  with  several  others, 
were  made  one  October  afternoon  along  less  than  half  a  mile  of  a 
small  pasture  brook  in  Pelham,  Mass.  By  ranging  further  up  and 
down  stream,  and  especially  by  coming  in  various  weathers  and  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year,  it  would  be  possible  endlessly  to  mul- 
tiply pictures  of  this  same  brook. 

Preliminary  study  of  the  problem  in  hand  may  begin  with  these 
pictures  of  the  Pelham  brook.  Let  the  student  answer  to  himself 
such  questions  as  these :  Are  you  quite  clear  that  this  brook  presents 
a  beautiful  element  in  the  landscape?  Would  you  yourself  enjoy 
visiting  it?  Have  you  ever  seen  such  brooks?  Did  they  give  you 
any  personal  delight?  Have  you  seen  other  brooks  of  different 
character?  Were  they  more  or  less  beautiful  than  this?  How 
would  this  brook  look  in  early  spring?  in  winter?  Would  it  be 
more  pleasing  at  any  other  season  of  the  year?  Do  the  photographs 
here  shown  satisfy  you  as  an  exposition  of  the  brook,  or  do  they  seem 
to  undervalue  the  brook  as  seen  in  nature?  Might  certain  of  these 
pictures  have  been  improved  by  changing  the  point  of  view,  by 
showing  more  background  or  more  foreground,  by  different  lighting, 
or  in  any  other  way? 

Remark:  It  will  be  observed  that  evey  one  of  these  pictures 
includes  a  human  figure.  This  must  not  be  regarded  as  an  imper- 
tinence, nor  must  these  figures  seem  to  draw  attention  away  from 
the  brook.  There  are  two  very  clear  reasons  for  introducing  these 
human  figures  here.  The  first  is  that  they  give  scale  to  the  pic- 
tures. The  second  is  that  in  landscape  gardening  the  landscape  has 
no  significance  whatever  except  in  its  relation  to  human  life.  This 
is  a  principle  of  the  most  fundamental  purport,  and  one  upon  which 
the  student  should  reflect  often. 


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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Study 

After  the  student  has  given  careful  thought  to  the  foregoing 
argument  and  to  the  example  of  the  brook  here  illustrated  he  should 
proceed  to  make  a  much  more  thorough  study  of  some  landscape 
motive  or  motives  in  his  own  neighborhood.  In  this  study  a  good 
camera  will  be  of  the  utmost  service.  Let  the  student  take  an 
assigned  area  (never  more  than  a  square  mile;  usually  much  less) 
of  woodland,  pasture,  lake  shore,  cultivated  farm  land,  canyon, 
sand  dune,  or  any  other  type  of  landscape  within  easiest  reach. 
Let  him  select  the  leading  motive  to  be  found  on  this  area.  Then, 
confining  himself  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  chosen  motive,  let  him 
make  a  series  of  the  very  best  photographs  of  which  he  or  his  camera 
are  capable,  his  object  being  to  find  the  utmost  beauty  and  to  show 
as  many  phases  of  that  beauty  as  his  invention  can  display.  It 
will  compUcate  his  problem  somewhat,  but  it  will  make  the  final 
result  better,  if  he  will  use  one  or  two  human  figures  in  his  photo- 
graphs for  the  reasons  indicated  above. 

It  will  be  desirable  to  have  several  members  of  the  same  class 
study  the  same  area  quite  independently  of  one  another.  If  there 
are  more  than  five  members  in  the  section,  however,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  they  be  assigned  to  other  areas. 

After  the  photographs  are  all  made  and  finished  they  should 
be  grouped  and  brought  into  one  general  exhibit.  At  that  time  the 
entire  ground  should  be  covered  with  questions  like  those  already 
suggested:  Do  these  pictures  justly  present  a  landscape  motive? 
Do  they  show  a  landscape  type?  In  how  far  have  they  failed  to 
present  the  subject  at  its  best?  What  remains  to  be  told?  Would 
other  weather  conditions  or  other  seasons  of  the  year  add  materially 
to  the  scenic  resources  of  the  area  studied?  Are  the  natural  resour- 
ces of  this  area  such  as  to  warrant  the  landscape  gardener  in  making 
a  park  here?  What  would  the  landscape  gardener  do  to  enhance 
the  natural  beauties  as  discovered  in  the  present  study? 

If  members  of  the  class  can  not  be  equipped  with  cameras  for 

292 


Fig.  148.     The  Trout  Pool 


TEXTBOOK    OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

this  study  it  will  be  necessary  for  each  student  to  analyze  the  scenery 
of  the  assigned  area  in  the  same  way,  to  select  a  leading  landscape 
motive,  then  to  find  and  fix  definite  points  of  view  from  which  certain 
aspects  of  the  selected  motive  may  be  seen  to  best  advantage.  In 
default  of  the  photograph,  full  descriptive  notes  must  be  made  on 
each  of  these  views,  and  upon  this  basis  class  discussions  may  be 
undertaken. 

When  the  class  is  constrained  to  study  an  area  in  this  way 
without  a  camera  it  will  be  most  desirable,  after  each  pupil  has  made 
his  individual  studies  and  notes,  for  the  class  and  teacher  to  visit 
the  ground  and  to  conduct  their  discussions  in  the  presence  of  the 
specific  views  selected  and  marked  (by  stakes)  by  the  pupils. 

Reference  Reading 

If  possible  read  in  this  connection  Waugh's,  The  Natural  Style  in 

Landscape  Gardening,  pages  43-73. 
John  C.  VanDyke,  Nature  for  its  Own  Sake. 


294 


LESSON   59 
The  Landscape  Links 

HIS  lesson  is  intended  to  provide  a  method  for 
the  intensive  study  of  some  favorable  tract  of 
native  landscape.  This  landscape  is  to  be  stud- 
ied with  the  special  purpose  of  learning  its  pic- 
torial possibilities,  whether  developed  or  latent 

General  Plan 

The  general  plan  of  this  exercise  is  to  have  the  instructor  lay 
off  a  series  of  fixed  views  along  a  definite  course.  Hence  the  term 
"the  landscape  links,"  these  stations  being  placed  in  a  circuitous 
series  like  the  holes  in  a  golf  links.  Except  for  this  distinctive  name 
the  exercise  might  better  be  compared  to  the  afternoon  walk,  in 
which  one  tramps  leisurely  from  point  to  point,  stopping  to  contem- 
plate at  ease  each  good  view. 

Directions 

The  instructor  should  choose  any  tract  of  interesting  land. 
The  more  varied  its  topography  and  the  more  interesting  its  scenery 
the  better.  But  no  excuses  are  to  be  made.  It  is  not  necessary, 
nor  even  desirable,  to  include  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Niagara  Falls 
and  the  Big  Trees  in  any  landscape  links.  Specially  favorable  op- 
portunities will  be  found  along  small  streams,  but  any  open  pasture 
will  do.  Even  cultivated  farm  land  presents  interesting  scenery, 
or  a  really  delightful  series  of  views  could  be  laid  off  along  crowded 
city  streets.  The  instructor  in  laying  out  his  landscape  links  should 
use  his  imagination  to  full  capacity,  and  if  this  organ  serves  him  well 
there  will  be  no  need  to  complain  of  the  landscapes  offered  by  nature. 

After  the  instructor  has  familiarized  himself  thoroughly  with 

295 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  150.    The  Corn  Field 


Fig.  151.    Uplands  —  Fields  and  Woods 


296 


THE     LANDSCAPE     LINKS 


Fig.  152.     A  Slnnv  1\i>ad 


Fin  153.     White  Oaks  —  ^wllt  I-ekn  In  iuuEOKuuxD 


297 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

the  area  under  study  he  will  fix  upon  several  stations  where  the  best 
pictures  are  to  be  seen.  The  desirability  of  each  station  may  be 
estimated  by  photographing  it  or  even  by  imagining  how  it  would 
appear  in  a  photograph.  An  essential  feature  of  this  exercise  lies 
precisely  here,  viz.,  in  separating  specific  views  from  their  context. 
The  casual  and  uninstructed  observer  often  fails  to  see  the  most 
intimate  beauties  of  the  landscape  because  he  does  not  focus  his 
attention  upon  them.  He  "can  not  see  the  forest  for  the  trees," 
or,  quite  as  probably,  he  does  not  see  the  beauty  of  a  particular 
tree  because  it  is  in  a  forest. 

As  each  one  of  these  pictures  is  selected  the  exact  point  from 
which  it  is  to  be  viewed  should  be  fixed.  At  the  point  of  view  a 
stake  may  be  driven.  Upon  the  stake  an  arrow  may  be  set  pointing 
to  the  desired  spot.  The  successive  stakes  in  the  landscape  links 
may  be  numbered  in  series. 

The  number  of  stations  in  this  series  should  not  be  less  than  six 
nor  more  than  twelve.  Obviously  it  will  be  desirable  to  make  these 
as  different  in  subject  matter  as  the  resources  of  the  area  permit. 
Some  views  should  open  toward  distant  prospects;  some  should 
focus  upon  definite  objects  in  middle  distances;  some  should  be 
directed  to  objects  in  the  immediate  foreground,  as  to  a  group  of 
wild  flowers,  or  even  to  a  mass  of  lichens  upon  a  stone. 

The  subjects  of  these  views  may  be  infinitely  varied,  such  as 
distant  views  of  mountains,  lakes,  cities;  middle  ground  views  of 
houses,  fences,  roads,  water,  brooks,  waterfalls,  bridges;  or  "close- 
up"  foreground  pictures  of  trees,  shrubs,  flowers,  a  bird's  nest,  a 
wayside  well,  a  stile,  a  park  seat.  But  let  it  be  remembered  that 
not  more  than  twelve  subjects  are  to  be  included  in  any  one  pro- 
gram. 

It  will  make  the  exercise  more  workable,  especially  for  a  large 
class,  if  a  printed  program  of  views  is  handed  to  each  student,  some- 
what in  the  following  form: 


298 


THE    LANDSCAPE     LINKS 


Fig.  154.    Y 


Landscape  Links  Program 

1.  Looking  N.W.,  group  of  large  hickory  trees. 

2.  Looking  W.,  masses  of  shrubbery  along  old  fence. 

3.  Distant  view,  looking  S.  across  farm  land  to  Eberle's  Hill. 


Illustration 

An  example  of  the  manner  in  which  this  exercise  may  be  worked 
out  is  shown  in  the  photographs,  Figures  150-156.  These  are  selected 
from  an  even  dozen  made  within  an  hour  one  September  afternoon 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

on  an  area  of  approximately  40  acres  of  rough  farm  and  pasture 
land  in  Pelham,  Mass.,  using  an  ordinary  kodak. 

Equipment 

The  pupils  are  now  to  be  taken  over  the  course  prepared  by 
the  instructor.  They  should  have  as  much  time  as  practicable; 
but  one  afternoon  is  ample  for  the  study  of  an  appropriate  landscape 
links  where  not  exceeding  twelve  stations  are  located  within  two 
miles  walk.  Each  student  must  have  notebook  and  pencil.  If 
possible  each  student  should  also  have  a  camera;  and  under  any 
arrangement  one  good  camera  with  competent  operator  should  ac- 
company the  class. 

Study 

Each  pupil  should  make  up  his  notes  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable 
him  to  answer  the  following  questions.  These  replies  should  be 
fully  written  out  as  soon  as  possible  after  completing  the  field  study. 

The  Whole  Collection 

1.  Photograph  or  sketch  each  view. 

2.  Describe  and  characterize  each  view  briefly  but  accurately. 

3.  Is  there  any  order,  sequence,  climax  or  other  relation  in 

the  series? 

4.  Might  any  rearrangement,  addition  or  omission  improve 

the  series? 

5.  On  what  principle  should  this  series  of  views  be  arranged? 

Particular  Views 

6.  Criticize  each  view  in   detail.     Could  it  be  improved? 

If  so,  how? 

7.  Each  point  of  view  might  have  been  better  chosen :     Crit- 

icize. 

8.  Which  is  the  most  pleasing  view?    Why? 

300 


THE     LANDSCAPE     LINKS 


9.    Is  the  value  of  any  view  influenced  by  extraneous  as- 
sociations? 


General  Questions 


10. 


11. 


Which  views  are  best,  —  foreground,  middle  ground,  or 

distance? 
At  what  distance  do  trees  give  the  best  effect?     Running 

water?     Still  water?     Buildings?     Lawn?     Meadow? 

12.  Would  different  atmospheric  or  weather  conditions  make 

different  answers  neces- 
sary to  any  questions 
on  this  sheet?  For 
instance? 

13.  Would  this  course  of  views 

be  worth  while  in  mid- 
winter, or  at  any  other 
season  of  the  year? 
When  these  replies  have  been 

written    out,    preferably    upon    the 

day  following  the  field   study,  the 

entire  class  should  be  assembled  for 

discussion.      If  photographs  of  the 

episodes  in  the  landscape  links  can 

be  on  exhibition  at  this  time  the 

class    conference    will    be    greatly 

assisted.       (It   may   be  wise,   with 

this  in  view,  for  the  instructor   to 

have  a  set  of  photographs  prepared 

in  advance.) 

The  several  questions  set  above 

should  then  be  taken  up  for   free 

discussion.     Questions  3,  5,   8   and 

12  may  be  regarded  as  having  special  importance.      It  should  be 

realized  by  all  that  a  full  agreement  among  members  of  a  class  is 

301 


Fig.  156.     Old  Pine  Tree 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

not  to  be  expected  nor  desired,  especially  upon  such  a  question  of 
personal  preference  as  question  8  —  though  this  is  one  of  the  most 
important  questions  of  all. 

It  will  be  found  most  interesting  for  the  class,  having  completed 
this  work,  to  go  over  the  same  course  a  month  or  two  later,  espe- 
cially after  the  fall  of  foliage  or  other  seasonal  change  makes  con- 
spicuous alterations  in  the  landscape. 


302 


LESSON   60 

National  Parks  and  Forests 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  acquaint  the  pupil 
with  the  very  large  and  immeasurably  valuable 
reservations  of  natural  scenery  held  by  the  gov- 
ernments of  the  United  States  and  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  for  the  use  of  the  public.  Every  well- 
informed  citizen  should  know  something  of  the 
extent  of  these  resources,  where  they  are  located, 

the  special  qualities  of  the  more  important  territories,  how  they  are 

protected,  administered  and  used. 

Argument 

Certain  areas  of  superlative  grandeur  are  preserved  especially 
in  the  National  Parks.  The  Grand  Canyon  in  Arizona  and  the 
Geysers  of  the  Yellowstone  are  outstanding  examples  of  this  sort. 
Everyone  would  certainly  wish  to  have  such  wonders  of  nature 
preserved  forever  and  made  always  freely  accessible  to  all  comers. 

After  these  come  great  types  of  natural  scenery,  which  though 
widely  multiplied,  are  of  such  unquestionable  beauty  and  worth 
that  they  should  always  be  available  for  public  study  and  enjoyment. 
Thus,  the  fascinating  scenery  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  preserved 
and  made  accessible  to  all  comers  in  Rocky  Mountain  National  Park, 
Pike  National  Forest,  Arapaho  National  Forest,  White  River  Na- 
tional Forest  and  others.  The  splendid  forests  of  the  northwest 
are  exemplified  in  Rainier  National  Park  and  the  Olympic  National 
Forest. 

Then,  there  are  many  areas  of  historic  or  prehistoric  interest, 
such  as  Mesa  Verde  National  Park,  BandiHer  National  Monument 

303 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

and  Gettysburg  National  Park.     These  should  be  kept  open  and 
accessible  in  the  public  interest. 

Without  attempting  further  to  classify  and  catalog  these  pub- 
lic uses  we  may  say  finally  that  wide  ranges  of  wild  territory,  pref- 


FiG.  157.     Old  Faithful  at  Sunrise  —  Yellowstone  National  Park.  —  Photograph 

by  Haynes 

erably  country  of  good  landscape,  containing  forests,  lakes,  and 
streams,  are  of  high  value  for  general  recreation.  These  uses  in- 
clude hunting,  fishing,  camping,  mountain  climbing,  hiking,  etc. 
The  public  reservations  now  under  administration  in  the  United 
States  are  being  used  at  the  present  time  by  about  5,000,000  persons 
annually,  a  number  which  is  increasing  rapidly.  The  great  body  of 
recreation  thus  provided  has  an  immeasurable  educational  and 
spiritual  value.  It  also  has  an  assignable  commercial  value  which 
may  be  roughly  estimated  at  from  $5,000,000  to  $10,000,000. 

304 


NATIONAL     PARKS    AND    FORESTS 

The  serious  student  ought  to  inform  himself  fully  regarding 
the  methods  by  which  national  parks,  forests  and  monuments  are 
established,  protected  and  administered;  but  most  of  all  he  should 
make  for  himself  the  opportunity  to  visit  as  many  as  possible  of 
these  possessions  in  which  he  is  himself  part  owner. 


Fig.  158.     Piegan  Mountain,  Ulacier  National  Park 
Photograph  by  Robert  Sterling  Yard 


National  Parks 

m 

The  American  National  Parks,  as  popularly  understood,  are 
administered  by  the  National  Park  Service,  a  bureau  in  the  De- 
partment of  the  Interior.  There  are,  however,  seven  other  public 
parks  administered  by  the  War  Department.  These  are  all  shown 
in  the  following  lists: 

305 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


National  Parks 
Administered  by  Interior  Department 


Name 

Location 

Created 

Acres 

Crater  Lake 

Oregon 

1902 
1890 
1908 
1910 
1832 
1916 
1916 
1907 
1906 
1917 
1899 
1902 
1915 
1890 
1904 
1903 
1872 
1890 
1909 

159,360 

General  Grant 

California 

2,536 

Grand  Canyon 

Arizona 

613,120 

Glacier 

Montana 

Arkansas 

Hawaiian  Islands 

981,681 

Hot  Springs    .           

912 

Hawaii 

75,295 

Lafavette 

Maine      

5,000 

Lassen  Volcanic 

California 

79,561 

IVIesa  Verde 

Colorado 

48,966 

Mount  McKinley 

Mount  Rainier 

Alaska 

1,498,000 

Washington 

207,360 

Piatt 

Oklahoma    

848 

Rocky  Mountain         .  .    .  . 

Colorado 

254,327 

Sequoia 

California 

161,597 

Sullv's  Hill 

North  Dakota 

780 

Wind  Cave        

South  Dakota 

10,899 

Yellowstone 

Wyoming,  Idaho,  Montana 
California 

2,142,720 

Yosemite 

719,622 

Zion 

Utah 

76,800 

7,039,384 

National  Parks 
Administered  by  War  Department 


Antietam  Battlefield .  .  .  . 
Chickamauga  and  Chata 

nooga 

Gettysburg 

Guilford  Court  House. . . 
Lincoln's  Birthplace.  .  .  . 

Vicksburg 

Shiloh 


Maryland 

Georgia  and  Tennessee 

Pennsylvania 

North  Carolina 

Kentucky 

Mississipi 

Tennessee 


306 


50 

6,543 

2,451 

125 

1 

1,323 

3,546 

14,039 


NATIONAL     PARKS    AND    FORESTS 


Fig.  159.     Rocky  Mountain  Nattonai.  Park,  Colorado 
Photograph  by  Fred  C.  Sears 

National  Forests 

The  National  Forests,  established  primarily  for  the  growing 
of  lumber  and  the  protection  of  water  sheds,  have  developed  a 
number  of  other  utilities,  such  as  the  grazing  of  sheep  and  cattle; 
but  they  are  also  of  great  importance  in  the  protection  of  scenery  and 
the  development  of  vast  recreation  and  health  utilities.  They  are 
administered  by  the  Forest  Service,  which  is  a  bureau  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  The  present  areas  of  the  National  Forests 
in  the  United  States  are  as  follows:* 

*This  list  is  given  as  of  1921.  As  there  are  frequent  minor  changes  in 
forest  boundaries,  these  figures  should  not  be  used  without  verification.  In 
the  same  way  it  is  desirable  always  to  get  the  latest  data  when  accuracy  is 
desired  with  regard  to  National  Parks  and  Monuments. 

307 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


National  Forests,  United  States 


Forest 


Absaroka 

Alabama 

Angeles 

Apache 

Arapaho 

Arkansas 

Ashley 

Battlement.  .  . 
Beartooth .  .  .  . 
Beaverhead .  . 

Bighorn 

Bitterroot .  .  .  . 

Blackfeet 

Black  Hills.  .  . 

Boise 

Bridger 

Cabinet 

Cache 

California  .  .  .  . 

Caribou 

Carson 

Cascade 

Challis 

Chelan 

Cherokee 

Chugach 

Clearwater .  .  . 
Cleveland .  .  .  . 
Cochetopa .  .  . 
Coconino .... 
Coeur  d'Alene . 

Colorado 

Columbia .... 

Colville 

Coronado.  .  .  . 
Crater 


State 


Montana 

Alabama 

California 

Arizona 

Colorado 

Arkansas 

Utah-Wyoming.  . 

Colorado 

Montana 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Montana 

Montana 

So.  Dak.-Wyo.... 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Montana 

Idaho-Utah 

California 

Idaho- Wyo 

New  Mexico 

Oregon 

Idaho 

Washington 

Ga.-N.  C.-Tenn. . 

Alaska 

Idaho 

California 

Colorado 

Arizona 

Idaho 

Colorado 

Washington 

Washington 

Ariz.-New  Mexico 
Oregon-Calif 


Net  Area,  Acres 


1, 


841,079 
65,167 
818,782 
,236,665 
634,485 
640,136 
980,096 
653,583 
660,680 
,339,568 
,124,617 
,047,420 
895,238 
621,084 
,059,719 
713,809 
829,206 
769,971 
817,172 
708,811 
869,320 
,022,431 
,257,443 
677,592 
179,295 
,130,034 
785,376 
548,661 
907,000 
,769,207 
663,531 
853,641 
785,227 
754,737 
430,381 
851,630 


308 


NATIONAL     PARKS    AND    FORESTS 


National  Forests,   United  States 

Forest 

State 

Net  Area,  Acres 

Crook   

Arizona 

Mont.-S.  Dak 

New  Mexico 

890,228 

Custer 

592,501 

Datil 

2,642,245 

Deerlodge 

Montana 

Oregon 

Utah-Ariz.-Nevada 

Calif.-Nevada 

Utah 

Utah 

Montana 

Florida 

Oregon 

Montana 

New  Mexico 

Colorado 

South  Dakota 

830,464 

Deschutes 

1,283,808 

Dixie 

Eldorado 

509,110 
553,718 

Fillmore 

700,890 

Fishlake 

656,901 

Flathead 

1,707,912 

Florida 

317,511 

Fremont 

849,526 

Gallatin 

567,614 

Gila 

1,559,530 

Gunnison 

905,409 

Harney 

526,055 

Hayden 

Wyo.-Col 

Montana 

Colorado 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Calif.-Nev 

Montana 

Arizona 

Wash.-Idaho 

Calif.-Ore 

Montana 

Utah-Col 

California 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Montana 

New  Mexico 

393,571 

Helena 

680,134 

Holy  Cross 

1,171,961 

Humboldt 

1,308,207 

Idaho 

Inyo 

1,879,284 
1,260,586 

Jefferson      

1,042,884 

Kaibab 

752,339 

Kaniksu 

455,083 

Klamath 

1,533,237 

Kootenai 

La  Sal 

Lassen 

Leadville 

Lemhi 

Lewis  and  Clark 

Lincoln 

1,332,353 
537,629 
950,484 
928,954 

1,095,938 
810,891 

1,123,975 

Lolo         . .                 .... 

Montana 

Porto  Rica 

Montana 

850,677 

Luquillo 

Madison    

12,443 
931,885 

309 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


National  Forests,  United  States 

Forest 

State 

Net  Area,   Acres 

Malheur 

Oregon 

Utah 

New  Mexico 

1,043,777 

781,575 

697,488 

477,794 

89,466 

577,997 

190,602 

1,030,717 

1,460,402 

1,250,017 

53,335 

698,222 

201  776 

Manti 

Manzano 

Medicine  Bow    .    . 

Wyoming 

Michigan 

Idaho-Utah 

Minnesota 

Montana 

California 

Calif.-Nev 

Vir.-W.  Vir 

Colorado 

Ga.-N.  C.-S.  C 

Virginia 

Michigan 

Minidoka 

Minnesota 

Missoula 

Modoc 

Mono    

Monongahela 

Montezuma 

Nantahala 

Natural  Bridge 

97,328 

205,944 
1,174,621 
1,626,627 

718,024 
1,488,410 
1,535,506 
1,053,700 

286,849 
1,197,511 

674,766 
1,093, 15B 

202,843 
1,144,418 

683,580 
1,447,850 
1,316,679 
1,135,167 

744,856 

556,438 
1,620,387 

598,912 
1,240,168 

Nebraska 

Nebraska   

Nevada 

Idaho 

Oregon 

Nevada 

Nezperce 

Ochoco 

Okanogan 

Washington 

Washington 

Oregon 

Arkansas 

Idaho 

Idaho 

Colorado 

North  Carolina 

Olympic 

Oregon 

Ozark.    .  . 

Payette 

Pend  Orielle 

Pike 

Pisgah 

Plumas 

California 

Utah 

Arizona 

Washington 

Colorado 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Idaho 

Colorado 

Colorado 

Powell 

Prescott 

Rainier 

Rio  Grande ....... 

Routt 

St.  Joe 

Salmon 

San  Isabel 

San  Juan 

310 


NATIONAL     PARKS     AND     FORESTS 


National  Forests,  United  States 


Santa  Barbara 
Santa  Fe  .  .  .  . 

Santiam 

Sawtooth 

Selway 

Sequoia 

Sevier 

Shasta 

Shenandoah.  . 

Shoshone 

Sierra 

Siskiyou 

Sitgreaves .... 

Siuslaw 

Snoqualmie. .  . 
Stanislaus.  .  .  . 

Superior 

Tahoe 

Targhee 

Teton 

Toyiabe 

Tongass 

Tonto 

Trinity 

Tusayan 

Uinta 

Unaka 

Umatilla 

Umpqua 

Uncompahgre. 

Wallowa 

Wasatch 

Washakie.  .  .  . 
Washington.  . 

Weiser 

Wenatchee.  .  . 


California 

New  Mexico.  .  .  . 

Oregon 

Idaho 

Idaho 

California 

Utah 

California 

Va.-W.  Va 

Wyoming 

California 

Calif.-Ore 

Arizona 

Oregon 

Washington .... 

California 

Minnesota 

Calif.-Nev 

Idaho-Wyoming 

Wyoming 

Nevada 

Alaska 

Arizona 

California 

Arizona 

Utah 

Tenn.-N.  C.-Va. 

Oregon 

Oregon 

Colorado 

Oregon 

Utah 

Wyoming 

Washington .... 

Idaho 

Washington .... 

311 


2,021,031 

1,364,585 

607,097 

1,159,352 

1,688,287 

1,879,809 

720,235 

824,071 

276,404 

1,579,316 

1,493,400 

1,346,905 

650,115 

546,292 

693,733 

810,802 

857,018 

545,063 

1,321,691 

1,924,497 

1,871,464 

5,449,302 

1,988,806 

1,409,010 

1,298,115 

1,007,145 

117,539 

1,228,793 

1,010,633 

786,239 

957,419 

605,476 

852,315 

1,459,748 

561,575 

657,034 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  160.    In  Camp,  San  Isabel  National  Forest,  Colorado 


National  Forests,  United  States 


Forest 

State 

Net  Area,  Acres 

White  Mountain 

White  River 

N.  H.-Me 

Colorado 

Oregon 

415,254 
845,104 

1,313,738 

Wichita            

Oklahoma 

Wyoming 

61,480 

Wvominfi 

974,514 

Net  Total 

156,666,045 

312 


NATIONAL     PARKS    AND     FORESTS 


Fig. 


161.     Dolly  Copp  Camp  Ground,  White  Mountains  National  Forest, 
New  Hampshire 


National  Monuments 

The  government  of  the  United  States  further  maintains  an 
important  series  of  pubUc  reservations,  of  rather  miscellaneous 
character,  under  the  denomination  of  National  Monuments.  A 
National  Monument  differs  from  a  National  Park  in  that  the  former 
is  established  by  presidential  proclamation,  whereas  the  latter  is  set 
aside  by  act  of  Congress.  The  latter  action  is  harder  to  accomplish 
and  harder  to  set  aside;  and  this  difference  gives  a  sort  of  theoret- 
ical measure  of  the  difference  in  importance  of  the  Parks  and  the 
Monuments. 

The  National  Monument  differs  further  in  its  administration, 
being  placed  under  the  care  of  any  branch  of  the  government  which 
happens  to  be  already  on  the  ground  and  in  charge  of  the  land. 

The  Monuments  now  in  existence  in  the  United  States  are  as 
follows : 


313 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


National  Monuments 
Administered  by  Interior  Department 


Casa  Grande 

Capulin  Mountain 

Chaco  Canyon 

Colorado 

Devil's  Tower 

Dinosaur 

El  Morro 

Gran  Quivira 

Katmai 

Lewis  and  Clark  Cavern, 

Montezuma  Castle 

Muir  Woods 

Natural  Bridges 

Navajo 

Papago  Saguaro 

Petrified  Forest 

Pinnacles 

Rainbow  Bridge 

Scott's  Bluff 

Shoshone  Cavern 

Sitka 

Tumacacori 

Verendrye 

Yucca  House 


Arizona 

New  Mexico.  . 
New  Mexico.  . 

Colorado 

Wyoming.  .  .  . 

Utah.  .  .^ 

New  Mexico.  . 
New  Mexico.  . 

Alaska 

Montana 

Arizona 

California .  .  .  . 

Utah 

Arizona 

Arizona 

Arizona 

California .  .  .  . 

Utah 

Nebraska .  .  .  . 
Wyoming.  .  .  . 

Alaska 

Arizona 

North  Dakota 
Colorado 


Established 

Acres 

1892 

480 

1916 

681 

1907 

20,629 

1911 

13,883 

1906 

1,152 

1915 

80 

1906 

240 

1909 

500 

1918 

1,088,000 

1908 

160 

1906 

160 

1908 

295 

1908 

2,740 

1909 

360 

1914 

2,050 

1906 

25,625 

1908 

2,080 

1910 

160 

1919 

2,054 

1909 

210 

1910 

57 

1908 

10 

1917 

253 

1919 

10 

1,161,869 


314 


NATIONAL     PARKS     AND     FORESTS 


National  Monuments 
Administered  by  Agricultural  Department 


Established 

Acres 

Bandelier 

New  Mexico 

1916 
1911 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1909 
1907 
1915 
1908 

22,075 
800 

Devil's  Postpile 

California 

Gila  Cliff  Dwellings 

New  Mexico 

160 

Jewel  Cave 

South  Dakota 

1,280 

299,370 

Mount  Olympus 

Washington 

Oregon  Caves 

Oregon 

Tonto 

Arizona 

640 

Walnut  Canyon 

Arizona 

960 

Wheeler 

Colorado 

300 

326,104 

National  Monuments 
Administered  by  War  Department 


Big  Hole  Battlefield 
Cabrillo- 


Montana. 
California 


Canadian  National  Parks 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  also  maintains  a  gallant  array  of 
National  Parks,  including  much  of  the  very  finest  scenery  on  the 
North  American  continent.  These  are  administered  by  the  Con- 
servation branch  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  Following 
is  a  catalog  of  existing  parks : 


315 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  162.    Rainbow  Bridge  National  Monument,  Arizona 


Canadian  National  Parks 

Rocky  Mountains  Park,  Alberta,  east  slope  of  Rockies,  es- 
tablished 1885;  area  2,751  sq.  miles.  Ideal  Mountain  Playground 
containing  the  two  famous  resorts,  Banff  and  Lake  Louise,  with 
much  of  the  finest  scenery  of  east  slope  of  Central  Rockies.  Mas- 
sive formation  of  stratified  sedimentary  rock,  upper  slopes  much  worn 
and  castellated,  or  glacier  crowned,  lower  slopes  covered  with  lux- 
uriant forests  and  flower  carpeted  alplands.  Glacier-fed  lakes  of 
exquisite  coloring,  wild  deer,  goat,  sheep,  elk,  etc. 

Yoho  Park,  British  Columbia,  west  slope  of  Rockies,  estab- 
lished 1886;  area  476  sq.  miles.  Rugged  scenery  of  west  slope  of 
Rockies,  narrow  transverse  valley  of  Kickinghorse,  precipitous 
peaks,  large  number  with  permanent  ice  caps  or  glaciers,  wonderful 

316 


NATIONAL     PARKS    AND     FORESTS 


Yoho  valley  with  falls  over  1200  feet  in  height.  Four  great  snow- 
fields  at  head.  Natural  bridge.  Emerald  lake,  lakes  O'Hara  and 
McArthur. 

Glacier  Park,  British  Columbia,  summit  of  Selkirks,  estab- 
lished 1886;  area  468  sq.  miles.  More  massive  formation  of  older 
range.  Peaks  worn  down  almost  to  timber  line  crowned  with  in- 
numerable glaciers;  luxuriant  forests,  alpine  flower  gardens.  One 
of  the  best  centres  for  alpine  climbers  and  students  of  glacier  for- 
mation, Illecillewaet  and  Asulkan  valleys  and  glaciers,  Nakimu  caves, 
Marion  Lake,  Rogers  and  Baloo  passes. 

Revelstoke  Park,  British  Columbia,  established  1914;  area 
95  sq.  miles.  Fourteen-mile  motor  drive  up  Mt.  Revelstoke  afford- 
ing panoramic  views  of  Columbia  and  Illecillewaet  Valleys,  Clachna- 
Coodin  ice-field,  Lakes  Eva  and  Millar.  Winter  sports  resort,  game 
preserve. 

Kootenay  Park,  British  Columbia,  established  1920;  area  587 
sq.  miles.  Highway  park  extending  5  miles  on  each  side  of  new 
Vermilion-Sinclair  section  of  Banff-California  highway.  Passes 
through  wonderful  and  practically  unknown  mountain  scenery. 
Large  rivers,  towering  canyons,  Briscoe  Range,  Ice  Lake,  Sinclair 
Canyon,  and  Radium  Hot  Springs.     Bear,  deer,  caribou  and  sheep. 

Jasper  Park,  Northern  Alberta,  established  1907;  area,  4,400 
sq.  miles.  Immense  mountain  wilderness,  partly  unexplored,  rich 
in  historic  associations.  Numbers  of  unclimbed  peaks,  glaciers, 
snow  fields,  canyons,  innumerable  lakes  of  wonderful  coloring. 
Athabaska  valley,  Maligne  lake,  gorge  and  canyon,  Mt.  Edith 
Cavell,  Miette  Hot  Springs,  Mt.  Robson,  highest  known  peak  in 
Canada.     Largest  big  game  sanctuary  in  world. 

Waterton  Lakes  Park,  Southern  Alberta,  adjoining  U.  S. 
Glacier  Park,  established  1895;  area,  423  sq.  miles.  Mountains 
noted  for  beauty  of  coloring;  lovely  lakes,  waterfalls  and  snow- 
peaks,  excellent  trout  fishing,  favorite  camping  resort. 

St.  Lawrence  Islands,  Ontario,  established  1905;  area  140 
acres.     Thirteen  islands  and  one  mainland  reservation  among  the 

317 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Thousand  Islands  of  the  St.  Lawrence  river  equipped  for  the  use  of 
summer  campers  and  visitors. 

Broder  Park,  Ontario,  estabhshed  1919;  area  20  acres;  ad- 
ditional island  opposite  Morrisburg  recently  added  to  above  reser- 
vation. 

Pt.  Pelee  Park,  Ontario,  on  Lake  Erie,  established  May  29th, 
1918.  Most  southerly  point  in  Canada;  northern  limit  of  many 
migratory  birds;  summer  resort  and  bird  reserve;  unique  fauna  and 
flora. 

Buffalo  Park,  New  Wainwright,  Alberta,  established  1907; 
area,  158.75  sq.  miles.  Fenced  enclosure,  home  of  the  Government's 
great  buffalo  herd  —  5000  buffalo,  also  moose,  elk,  deer,  yak  and 
cattalo. 

Elk  Island  Park,  near  Lamont,  Alberta,  established  1899; 
area  16  sq.  miles.  Smaller  fenced  enclosure  contains  about  200 
buffalo,  also  moose,  elk  and  deer. 

Foremost  Antelope  reserve.  Southern  Alberta,  reserved  by  Order 
of  Minister;  area  9  sq.  miles.  Fenced  reserve  containing  about 
100  antelope. 

Fort  Howe,  New  Brunswick,  established  1914;  area  19  acres. 
Associated  with  earliest  history  of  province.  Site  of  landing  of 
United  Endeavor  Loyalists. 

Fort  Anne,  Nova  Scotia,  established  1917.  Fort  Annapolis 
Royal  played  important  part  in  early  history  of  Canada,  first  vessel 
constructed  and  first  grist-mill  erected  in  North  America,  the  centre 
of  civilization  and  progress  in  Acadia  and  of  the  fiercely  contested 
struggle  between  France  and  England  for  the  possession  of  the  con- 
tinent. 

Canadian  National  Forests 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  has  also  in  process  of  formation  a 
great  National  Forest  system  in  every  way  comparable  to  that  of 
the  United  States.  The  areas  already  set  aside  are  shown  in  the 
following  memorandum : 

318 


NATIONAL     PARKS     AND     FORESTS 

The  Long  Lake  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Brit- 
ish Columbia;   area  264.21  square  miles. 

The  Monte  Hills  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Brit- 
ish Columbia;   area  182.75  square  miles. 

The  Martin  Mountain  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province 
of  British  Columbia;   area  34  square  miles. 

The  Niskonlith  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Brit- 
ish Columbia;  area  318.5  square  miles. 

Tranquille  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  British 
Columbia;   area  290.6  square  miles. 

Hat  Creek  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  British 
Columbia;  area  340.25  square  miles. 

Larch  Hills  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  British 
Columbia;  area  25  square  miles. 

Riding  Mountain  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of 
Manitoba;   area  1535  square  miles. 

Turtle  Mountain  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Manitoba; 
area  109.25  square  miles. 

Spruce  Woods  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Mani- 
toba;  area  224.5  square  miles. 

Duck  Mountain  Forest  Reserve  No.  1  situate  in  the  province  of 
Manitoba;  area  1,462.25  square  miles. 

Porcupine  Forest  Reserve  No.   1   situate  in  the  province   of 
Manitoba;  area  777.5  square  miles. 

Beaver  Hills  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Saskatche- 
wan;  area  99  square  miles. 

Pines  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Saskatchewan; 
area  166.15  square  miles. 

Moose   Mountain   Forest   Reserve  situate  in   the  province   of 
Saskatchewan;  area  156  square  miles. 

Porcupine   Forest   Reserve   No.  2  situate   in   the   province   of 
Saskatchewan;  area  564.75  square  miles. 

Duck  Mountain  Forest  Reserve  No.  2  situate  in  the  province 
of  Saskatchewan;  area  81  square  miles. 

319 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Cypress  Hills  Forest  Reserve  No.  2  situate  in  the  province  of 
Saskatchewan;  area,  72  square  miles. 

Nisbet  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Saskatchewan; 
area  149.49  square  miles. 

The  Cooking  Lake  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of 
Alberta;   area  111.50  square  miles. 

Cypress  Hills  Forest  Reserve  No.  1  situate  in  the  province  of 
Alberta;  area,  81  square  miles. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province 
of  Alberta;  area  20,896.65  square  miles. 

Fort  a  la  Corne  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Sas- 
katchewan; area  513  square  miles. 

Lesser  Slave  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  Alberta; 
area  5,023  square  miles. 

Nicola  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  British  Co- 
lumbia; area  505.75  square  miles. 

Fly  Hill  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  British  Co- 
lumbia; area  223.75  square  miles. 

Arrowstone  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  British 
Columbia ;   area  255  square  miles. 

Mount  Ida  Forest  Reserve  situate  in  the  province  of  British 
Columbia;  area  45.25  square  miles. 

Study 

The  pupil  should  study  the  foregoing  catalogs  of  parks,  forests 
and  monuments.  While  it  can  not  be  expected  that  the  ordinary 
citizen  will  commit  to  memory  all  these  names,  with  the  location  and 
characteristics  of  each  area,  yet  everyone  should  have  a  clear  idea 
of  the  extent  and  importance  of  these  reservations.  Several  of  the 
most  notable  National  Parks  should  be  known  by  name  with  their 
outstanding  features. 

It  will  certainly  not  be  too  much  to  require  each  pupil  to  know 
all  the  parks,  forests  and  monuments  which  happen  to  be  situate  in 
his  own  state.     This  may  be  considered  a  fixed  assignment. 

320 


NATIONAL     PARKS     AND     FORESTS 

It  is  desirable  further,  for  the  sake  of  general  information,  for 
each  pupil  to  read  as  many  books  as  possible  from  the  list  of  refer- 
ences given  below. 

If  the  teacher  or  members  of  the  class  have  visited  important 
parks,  forests,  or  monuments,  it  will  be  desirable  to  receive  from 
them  their  personal  accounts  of  the  places  visited.  Photographs, 
lantern  slides,  maps  and  other  materials  are  sometimes  available  so 
as  to  give  additional  vividness  to  the  common  knowledge  of  these 
reservations.     All  such  helps  should  be  utilized  to  the  utmost. 

Questions 

1.  What  are  the  leading  National  Parks,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada?     And  what  are  the  outstanding  features  of  each? 

2.  What  are  the  most  important  National  Monuments? 

3.  What  National  Forests  contain  especially  important  scenery? 

4.  What  are  the  practical  and  legal  differences  between  Na- 
tional Parks,  National  Forests  and  National  Monuments? 

5.  Why  are  these  Parks,  Forests  and  Monuments  mainly  in 
the  western  states? 

6.  Would  it  be  desirable  to  increase  such  national  holdings 
largely  in  the  middle,  eastern  and  southern  states?  How  could  it 
be  done? 

7.  What  line  of  distinction  should  be  maintained  between 
National  Parks  and  State  Parks?  Between  National  Forests  and 
State  Forests? 

8.  Are  there  important  areas  still  outside  these  national  res- 
ervatio^is  which  should  be  brought  in  either  as  National  Parks  or 
National  Forests? 

Reference  Readings 

Yard,  Book  of  the  National  Parks. 
Allen,  Guide  to  National  Parks  of  America. 
Mum,  Our  National  Parks. 
BoERKER,  Our  National  Forests. 

321 


LESSON   61 

State  Parks 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  emphasize  the 
importance  of  state  parks,  to  present  some  of 
the  principles  which  should  govern  in  the  de- 
velopment of  a  state  park  system,  and  to  lead 
each  student  most  seriously  to  consider  the  con- 
ditions of  his  own  state  in  this  matter. 

Argument 

The  immeasurable  value  for  health  and  recreation  of  large  tracts 
of  virgin  scenery  has  generally  been  overlooked.  Yet  outdoor  rec- 
reation amidst  wild  scenery  is  especially  appreciated  by  Americans. 
Up  to  quite  recent  times,  however,  there  was  so  much  wild  country 
on  this  continent  that  no  one  considered  the  necessity  of  preserving 
such  lands  for  future  generations  or  protecting  them  for  present  use. 
But  as  the  country  has  filled  up,  as  population  has  increased,  and  as 
life  has  crowded  into  cities,  these  needs  have  become  increasingly 
manifest,  until  now  the  need  of  such  reservations  of  scenery  is  pretty 
generally  acknowledged. 

Now  the  national  provision  of  parks,  forests  and  national 
monuments,  magnificent  though  it  be,  is  by  no  means  sufficient. 
Especially  as  circumstances  have  determined  that  the  largest  na- 
tional reserves  should  be  located  in  the  areas  having  relatively  small 
populations,  leaving  the  crowded  cities  and  heavily  settled  areas 
far  from  these  national  reserves,  it  becomes  important  that  the 
states  do  something  for  themselves,  and  this  duty  is  plainly  most 
pressing  upon  those  states  which  lie  farthest  from  the  great  parks 
and  forests  but  which  have  the  most  congested  populations. 

Every  state,  moreover,  no  matter  where  it  is  located,  will  have 

322 


STATE     PARKS 


Fia.  163.     Watterson  Point,  St.  Lawrence  Reservation,  New  York  State 

323 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

some  areas  which  ought  to  be  saved  and  consecrated  to  pubHc 
use.  There  will  be  lakes,  rivers,  stretches  of  seashore,  mountains 
and  other  types  of  natural  scenery  for  which  all  good  citizens  will 
naturally  feel  a  deep  love  and  reverence.  There  will  be  spots  of 
special  historic  interest  which  should  be  preserved.  All  these  in- 
terests can  best  be  cared  for  in  some  sort  of  state  park  system. 

It  is  best  at  this  point  to  avoid  drawing  any  distinctions  between 
state  parks  and  state  forests.  Indeed  there  are  other  kinds  of  pub- 
lic lands  sometimes  serving  admirably  the  purposes  of  state  parks, 
for  example  reserved  watersheds,  military  reservations,  etc.  Any 
fair  view  of  a  state's  resources  will  include  all  such  lands  which  are 
open  to  the  public,  and  any  plans  for  the  future  must  give  attention 
to  these  different  forms  of  land  holdings. 


A  State's  Needs 

Some  effort  has  been  made  to  establish  a  ratio  of  park  area  to 
population.  For  example  it  used  to  be  thought  that  a  city  should 
have  one  acre  of  park  to  every  200  inhabitants.  More  lately  the 
estimates  have  approached  a  ratio  of  one  acre  to  each  100  inhab- 
itants. Yet  vague  as  are  these  estimates  they  are  like  the  exact- 
ness of  pure  mathematics  compared  with  our  knowledge  of  what 
the  country  needs  as  a  whole,  outside  the  city  park  systems.  It  is 
plain  that  such  a  ratio  could  hardly  be  followed  in  practice,  any 
way,  since  densely  populated  states  like  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island  could  not  possibly  set  aside  so  much  land  per  capita  as  should 
be  reserved  by  large  states  of  sparser  population,  like  Texas  or 
Wisconsin. 

Evidently  the  size  of  the  state  is  a  factor,  too,  in  the  computa- 
tion. Thus  we  can  only  say  that  the  area  of  park  land  needed  varies 
directly  with  the  size  of  the  state  and  the  density  of  population,  but 
it  would  be  impossible  in  the  present  knowledge  of  social  science  to 
represent  these  factors  in  exact  figures.  We  may  be  pretty  sure, 
however,  that  whatever  may  be  the  theoretically  desirable  allow- 

324 


ST  A  T  E     PA RKS 


ance  of  park  lands  for  a  state  there  will  be  no  probability  as 
matters  are  now  going,  that  any  state  will  ever  get  too  much.  If 
any  state  should  ever,  by  any  inconceivable  chance,  set  aside  more 
park  lands  than  could  be  wisely  used,  then  such  surplus  lands  could 
most  certainly  be  disposed  of  to  advantage  at  any  time. 

Desirable  Lands 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  lands  for  parks,  forests  and  all 
similar  purposes  be  set  aside  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  As 
population  grows  the  need  for  such  properties  increases  precisely  as 
the  difTiculty  of  buying  them  increases.  Very  frequently  it  happens 
that  by  the  time  the  need  is  really  felt  the  possibility  of  acquiring 
the  desired  lands  has  disappeared,  never  to  return.  This  law  does 
not  spare  the  most  treasured  items  of  landscape  nor  the  most  sacred 
historic  relics. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  in  state  park  policy,  there- 
fore, is  to  make  plans  many  years  ahead  —  the  further  into  the  future 
the  better,  —  and  to  acquire  all  desirable  lands  just  as  rapidly  as 
possible. 

Some  of  the  things  which  should  be  especially  regarded  in  making 
up  a  program  of  state  parks  are  the  following: 

1.  Seashores.  Any  state  which  is  so  fortunate  as  to  border 
upon  the  ocean  should  certainly  save  some  miles  of  good  beaches 
for  the  perpetual  enjoyment  of  all  its  citizens. 

2.  Lakes  and  lake  shores.  These  should  be  reserved  with 
special  care  in  states  like  Kansas  or  Oklahoma  where  such  scenery  is 
rare. 

3.  Rivers  —  certain  sections  of  special  scenic  charm  or  recrea- 
tion value. 

4.  Wild  mountain  lands.  Such  territory  is  usually  best  ad- 
apted to  forestry. 

5.  Non-agricultural  swamp  lands  are  also  often  best  adapted 
to  forestry. 

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TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

6.  Scenic  types.  For  example  Kansas  ought  to  have  one  or 
more  large  prairie  parks  to  be  kept  as  examples  of  the  pristine 
prairies;  Wisconsin  should  have  some  examples  of  the  primeval 
pine  forests. 

7.  Spots  of  special  scenic  charm,  such  as  waterfalls,  glaciers, 
caves,  or  canyons.  The  Natural  Bridge  in  Virginia,  Mammoth 
Cave  in  Kentucky  and  Mt.  Orford  in  the  Province  of  Quebec  may  be 
mentioned  as  examples 

8.  Places  of  historic  interest. 

Administration 

There  will  be  a  tendency  in  most  states  to  place  parks  and 
forests  more  and  more  under  some  central  form  of  administration, 
mainly  in  bureaus  of  public  works  or  of  conservation,  sometimes 
under  special  state  park  boards.  Certain  features  of  policy  in  the 
management  of  state  lands  of  this  sort  may  be  laid  down  as  follows: 

1.  Acquisition  of  park  and  forest  lands  ought  to  go  forward 
as  rapidly  as  possible  in  accordance  with  well-studied  programs. 

2.  Acquired  lands  should  be  protected  from  fire,  commercial 
exploitation  and  all  forms  of  strip  or  devastation.  Conservation 
is  the  first  step  in  every  administration  program 

3.  In  general  all  these  areas  should  be  left  in  their  natural 
condition.  A  partial  exception  may  be  made  for  forest  lands  which 
are  to  be  planted.  Conventional  "park  improvements"  are  es- 
pecially to  be  avoided. 

4.  The  various  areas  are  made  accessible  to  the  public,  either 
by  railroads,  motor  roads  or  trails;  but  this  opening  up  of  territory 
need  not  be  hastened  too  rapidly 

5.  The  charms  of  such  scenery,  the  opportunities  for  recreation 
and  the  social  values  of  these  public  lands  must  be  made  known  to 
the  citizens  by  sane  interpretation  and  conservative  advertising. 
Loud  and  bombastic  propaganda  is  in  poor  taste,  it  is  unnecessary 
and  it  may  do  more  harm  than  good. 

326 


ST A TE    PARKS 


Examples 

Several  states  have  already  made  good  beginnings  in  this 
field.  Special  mention  may  be  made  of  New  York,  Iowa,  Connecti- 
cut, Massachusetts,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota.  Merely  as  an 
example  the  following  list  of  Connecticut's  state  parks  may  be 
cited. 

Connecticut  State  Parks 


Park 

Acres 

Town 

Sherwood  Island 

Hurd  Park 

30 
455 
219 

84 

122 

1 

50 
5 

10 
168 

13 

22 
2000 

70 
1 

50 

90 
200 
500 

30 
835 

Westport 
East  Hampton 
Litchfield  et  al. 

Mt.  Tom . 

Mt.  Bushnell 

Washington 

Lyme 

Norfolk 

Selden  Neck 

Haystack 

Ivy  Mountain 

Goshen 

Mohawk  Mountain 

Great  Hill 

Cornwall 
Portland,  et  al. 

West  Peak 

Mashamoquet  Brook 

Sap  Tree  Run 

Pomfret 
Pomfret 

Macedonia  Brook 

Bolton  Notch 

Kent 
Bolton 

Dart  Island 

Middletown 

Wharton  Brook 

Wallingford,  et  al. 

Chaplin 

Kent 

Buttonball  Brook 

Kent  Falls 

Hammonasset  Beach 

Black  Pond 

Madison 
Meriden 

Devil's  Hop  Yard 

East  Haddam 

Total 

4955 

327 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Fig.  164.     Turkey  Run,  Indiana  State  Park 

New  York  state  has  been  referred  to  as  a  leader  in  the  move- 
ment for  state  parks  and  forests.  The  following  list  of  present 
holdings  is  impressive: 


New  York  State  Parks  and  Forests 

The  Forest  Preserve: 

Adirondack  Park,  over  3,300,000  A.  of  which  over  1,800,000  is 

state-owned. 
Lake  George  Islands. 
Catskill  Park,   over  575,000  A.  of  which  over  100,000  A.  is 

state-owned. 
John  Brown's  Farm  243  A. 

St.  Lawrence  Reservation  or  International  Park  181  A. 
State  Reservation  at  Saratoga  Springs  600  A. 
Cuba  Reservation  500  A. 
Curtiss  Game  Preserve  27  A. 

328 


STATE     PARKS 


State  Nurseries  6  in  number. 

Fish  Hatcheries  12,  and  Game  Farms  3  in  number. 
Parks  —  Unusual  scenic  areas;  — for  recreation  uses  primarily: 
Fire  Island  Park  118  A. 

PaUsades  Interstate  Park  about  35,000  A. 

Monhansic  Lake  Reservation  1100  A. 

John  Boyd  Thatcher  Park  350  A. 

Enfield  Falls  Reservation  390  A. 

Clark  Reservation  about  75  A. 

Battle  Island  Park  225  A. 

Watkins  Glen  103  A. 

Letchworth  Park  1000  A. 

Niagara  Falls  State  Reservation  412  A. 

Allegany  State  Park  65,000  A.  of  which  7000  A.  is  state-owned. 
Historical  Areas: 

Philipse  Manor  Hall. 

Stony  Point  Battlefield  35  A. 

Washington's  Headquarters  6  A. 

Temple  Hill  75  ft.  x  75  ft. 

The  Clinton  House. 

The  Senate  House. 

The  Schuyler  Mansion  2  A. 

Bennington  Battlefield  171  A. 

Saratoga  Battle  Monument  2  A. 

Stark's  Knob  4  A. 

The  Grant  Cottage. 

Lake  George  Battlefield  35  A. 

Crown  Point  State  Reservation  25  A. 

The  Guy  Park  House. 

The  Sir  William  Johnson  Mansion  and  Block-house. 

The  Herkimer  Homestead. 

Fort  Brewerton  1  A. 

Battle  Island  Park  225  A. 

329 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Montcalm  Park. 
Spy  Island  1  A. 
Newtown  Battlefield  16  A. 

Areas  of  Geological  Interest: 

Palisades  Interstate  Park  about  35,000  A. 
John  Boyd  Thatcher  Park  350  A. 


Fig.  165.     Sugar  Loaf  Mountain  —  A  Massachusetts  State  Park 

Lester  Park  3  A. 

Stark's  Knob  4  A. 

Clark  Reservation  about  75  A. 

Squaw  Island. 

Letchworth  Park  1000  A. 

Niagara  Falls  State  Reservation  412  A. 


330 


STATE     PARKS 


Study 

The  pupil  must  first  of  all  make  a  complete  inventory  of  all  the 
state  parks,  forests  and  other  reservations  in  his  state.  If  his  state 
also  contains  national  parks,  forests  or  monuments,  or  any  important 
reserves  of  any  other  nature  other  than  state  lands,  these  should 
also  be  listed,  but  the  state  properties  are  to  be  especially  regarded 
in  this  study.  This  list  should  include  a  statement  of  where  each 
area  is  located  and  its  area.  The  compilation  of  this  inventory  may 
prove  a  difTicult  task,  but  it  should  certainly  be  carried  out  in  full. 

Secondly  the  student  should  ascertain  who  is  administratively 
responsible  for  these  areas  and  what  form  of  managenent  is  actually 
in  force.  If  the  state  is  making  appropriations  for  maintenance  the 
amount  of  such  appropriations  should  be  ascertained.  Any  other 
sources  of  maintenance  should  likewise  be  determined. 

Lastly  the  student  should  consider  carefully  what  additional 
areas  within  his  state  should  he  set  aside  as  parks,  as  forests  and  as 
historical  reservations.  Naturally  these  matters  can  not  be  settled 
without  considerable  study.  Discussion  in  class  groups  will  tend 
to  clarify  everybody's  ideas.  It  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  re- 
quire each  pupil  finally  to  make  a  well-studied  written  report  on 
this  subject  accompanied  by  a  state  map  showing  existing  proper- 
ties and  those  proposed  for  acquisition. 

Readings 

NoLEN,  State  Parks,  in  Park  and  Cemetery,  Chicago,  March,    1911, 
p.  687 


331 


LESSON   62 

Neighborhood  Parks 

HE  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  make  clear  the 
distinctive  nature  and  uses  of  the  small  neigh- 
borhood park,  to  direct  the  attention  of  each 
student  to  the  needs  of  his  own  neighborhood 
and  to  suggest  methods  for  meeting  such  needs. 
Reference  is  made  here  to  neighborhood  parks 
and  picnic  grounds  of  a  definitely  rural  nature. 
Parks  and  playgrounds  in  cities  are  designed  to  meet  quite  differ- 
ent conditions,  and  their  selection,  planning  and  management  will 
naturally  follow  different  rules. 

Discussion 

National  parks  serve  to  preserve  the  great  wonders  of  natural 
scenery.  They  will  be  of  large  area  and  necessarily  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  average  citizen.  State  parks  will  supplement 
national  parks,  will  preserve  types  of  native  scenery  and  will  supply 
relatively  large  areas  for  camping,  hunting,  fishing,  etc.  There  is 
still  need  for  small  neighborhood  parks  or  picnic  grounds.  Every 
community,  town  or  village  should  have  something  of  this  sort  —  a 
suitable  place,  amidst  shady  woods,  by  lake  shore  or  streamside, 
quickly  accessible,  where  chataquas,  dances,  church  picnics,  grange 
meetings,  boy  scout  meetings,  neighborhood  and  family  gatherings 
of  all  sorts  can  be  held. 

The  area  need  not  be  large.  Three  or  four  acres  of  land  of  the 
right  kind  will  serve  admirably,  though  ten  acres  is  better.  While 
pleasant  landscape  surroundings  are  important,  and  the  shade  of 

332 


NEIGHBORHOOD    PARKS 


Dark  Pool  in  Holland  Glen 


good  trees  particularly  desirable,  these  little  parks  will  not  usually 
attempt  grandiose  effects  in  this  field.  The  chief  service  to  be 
sought  is  found  in  a  clean,  pleasant,  accessible  social  meeting 
place. 


333 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 


Administration 

Picnic  grounds  and  neighborhood  parks  of  this  character  are 
found  in  many  communities.     The  ownership  varies  greatly,  however. 

In  New  England,  where 
town  government  prevails, 
the  town  sometimes  holds 
title  to  such  grounds,  and 
this  is  perhaps  the  ideal 
ownership.  Occasionally 
an  incorporated  village  will 
own  land  of  this  nature. 
Sometimes  the  title  is  held 
by  a  semi-public  organiza- 
tion, as  by  some  church  or 
the  grange.  Not  infre- 
quently such  parks  are  held 
and  managed  by  trustees. 
A  good  many  fairly  ser- 
viceable picnic  groves  and 
"amusement  parks"  are 
owned  and  controlled  by 
interurban  trolley  com- 
panies or  other  transporta- 
tion agencies,  under  which 
circumstances  it  is  usual 
to  charge  an  admission  fee, 
or  to  operate  concessions 
for  profit. 

Any  one  of  these  forms 
of  ownership  may  be  entire- 
ly satisfactory  in  given 
circumstances.  In  a  particular  instance  there  are  likely  to  be 
sound  preferences;    and  it  will    generally    be  felt    that   the   more 

334 


Fig.  167.    The  Mossy  Rocks  in  Holland  Glen 


STATE     PARKS 


completely   the    title  and  management  rests  with   the  public   the 
better. 

Equipment 

The  equipment  on 
these  neighborhood  parks 
ought  to  be  simple  and 
definitely  adapted  to  well 
settled  uses.  Thus  if  base- 
ball is  the  favorite  local 
sport,  a  diamond  and 
bleachers  will  be  provided. 
If  the  retired  farmers  want 
to  play  golf  (which  is  cer- 
tainly better  than  whittling 
drygoods  boxes  and  cursing 
the  administration),  the 
necessary  putting  greens, 
fairways  and  other  para- 
phernalia may  be  supplied. 
If  chataquas  or  similar 
meetings  are  to  be  frequent 
an  assembly  hall  may  be 
built  or  an  outdoor  theater. 
If  dances  are  the  popular 
entertainment  a  good  floor 
is  the  chief  necessity.  If 
camping  is  undertaken 
there  will  need  to  be  safe 
campfires  built  and  proper  attention  given  to  water  supply  and 
sanitation.  If  swimming  is  customary,  dressing  rooms  should  be 
built.  Parking  space  for  automobiles  will  be  a  necessity  in  any 
case. 


Fig.  168.     Whkre  the  Tr-^il  Goes  In 


335 


TEXTBOOK     OF    LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Appropriate  treatment  consists  in  building  those  conveniences 
actually  demanded  by  use,  ^  and  nothing  else!  Fanciful  "orna- 
mental" features,  such  as  fountains  and  flower  beds,  may  better 
be  spared. 

Example 

Herewith  are  reproduced  photographs  taken  in  a  small  neigh- 
borhood park  in  Belchertown,  Mass.  This  wild  ravine,  known  as 
Holland  Glen,  was  saved  from  the  ruin  of  the  lumberman  by  pur- 
chase, the  money  being  raised  by  popular  subscription  and  the 
title  taken  by  a  board  of  trustees.  The  spot  is  a  favorite  picnic 
ground  and  the  patriotic  citizens  of  the  neighborhood  would  not 
consent  to  seeing  it  despoiled. 

Every  neighborhood  has  its  beauty  spots  of  this  order.  Clearly 
they  should  be  preserved  for  the  common  enjoyment.  The  example 
of  Belchertown  is  deserving  of  wide  emulation. 

Study 

Each  pupil  should  give  searching  study  to  conditions  in  his 
own  neighborhood.  If  there  be  pupils  who  live  in  large  cities  and 
to  whom  this  study  does  not  directly  apply,  they  should  be  assigned 
to  the  examination  of  some  more  rural  community.  Of  course  the 
first  step  will  be  to  ascertain  what  provision  of  neighborhood  parks 
and  picnic  grounds  now  exists  in  the  community  under  study. 

Next  the  question  must  be  asked  and  answered  whether  this 
provision  is  satisfactory.  Has  the  best  spot  been  chosen?  Is  it 
owned  and  managed  to  the  best  pubhc  good?  Is  it  properly 
equipped? 

In  case  it  appears  that  existing  provisions  are  nil  or  inadequate 
the  pupil  should  next  determine  what  needs  are  to  be  met;  then 
what  land  can  be  found  which  will  best  serve  these  needs,  then  what 
form  of  ownership  and  management  are  most  likely  to  suit  the 

336 


STATE     PARKS 


circumstances,  and  how  the  funds  are  to  be  raised  for  financing  the 
project;  lastly,  what  equipment  may  be  necessary. 

Report  on  these  points  should  be  made  in  writing,  accom- 
panied by  maps,  surveys,  photographs,  etc.  Class  discussion  of 
these  reports  will  be  very  desirable. 


nOfEBTY  UUtART 


337 


LITERATURE  OF  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

The  field  of  landscape  gardening  has  a  large,  rich  and  delightful 
literature.     Any  student  of  the  subject  ought  to  read  widely. 

Some  books,  naturally,  deal  with  history,  others  with  artistic 
theory,  others  with  engineering  phases  of  the  subject,  many  with 
plant  materials.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  any  one  book  will 
expound  everything. 

Fortunately  a  very  large  part  of  the  best  literature  of  land- 
scape gardening  is  in  the  English  language.  Much  of  it  is  American 
and  much  of  it  is  recent.     The  best  is  therefore  easily  accessible. 

Every  serious  student  ought  to  expect  to  buy  a  few  of  the  best 
books  for  himself.  He  must  use  some  care,  however,  to  make  sure 
that  he  is  really  buying  the  best  books  and  passing  over  those  which 
are  merely  showy. 

Every  school  in  which  landscape  gardening  is  taught  will  need 
a  reference  library  including  the  leading  modern  works  and  as  many 
others  as  funds  will  buy.  The  selection  of  such  a  reference  Hbrary 
is  a  matter  requiring  much  thought  and  investigation. 

The  following  list  of  books  is  offered  with  some  misgivmgs. 
While  it  probably  includes  all  the  works  of  most  immediate  value  in 
the  course  outlined  in  the  foregoing  pages,  it  is  by  no  means  com- 
plete, judged  by  any  standard.  In  order  to  bring  the  list  within 
practicable  compass  and  in  order  to  avoid  the  mistake  of  confusing 
the  teacher  or  the  pupil  not  already  famihar  with  this  field,  it  has 
been  necessary  to  offer  a  relatively  short  list,  excluding  many  in- 
dubitably good  books.  Some  of  the  books  included  are  certainly 
no  better  than  some  of  those  left  out,  but  specific  comparisons  of 
this  invidious  sort  would  nevertheless  be  unnecessary,  futile,  and 
unfair.  It  is  hoped  that  this  list  will  be  of  service  to  the  teacher 
making  up  a  small  reference  library  or  to  the  student  choosing  a 
few  books  for  himself. 

338 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Agre,  Garden  Design,  London,  19n. 

Adams,  Rural  Planning,  Ottawa,  1917.     Contains  much  useful  matter  and 
discussion  of  principles.     Very  useful  in  the  field  of  country  planning. 

Allen,  Guide  to  National  Parks  of  America,  New  York,   1918.     Includes 
notes  on  Canadian  parks. 

Andre,  L'Art  des  Jardins,  Paris,  1879.     A  classic  work. 

Angier,  Garden  Book  of  California,  San  Francisco,  1906. 

Bailey,  Manual  of  Gardening,  New  York,  1911.     A  valuable  handbook  of 
practical  gardening. 

Bailey,  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture,  New  York,  1916.     An  indis- 
pensable reference  work. 

Barron,  Lawns,  New  York,  1910. 

Blanchan,  American  Gardens,  New  York. 

Boerker,  Our  National  Forests,  New  York,  1918. 

BuRNAP,   Parks,   Their  Design,    Equipment  and   Use.     Philadelphia,    1916. 
A  rather  full  and  effective  discussion  of  the  problems  involved. 

Cable,  Amateur  Garden,  New  York,  1914, 

Challman,  The  Rural  School  Plant,  Milwaukee,  1917. 

Downing,  Landscape  Gardening,   10  Ed.,  New  York,  1921.     A  recent  re- 
vision of  a  famous  old  American  work. 

Earle,  Old  Time  Gardens,  New  York,  1901.     Pleasant  reading  with  many 
photographs. 

Earle,   Sundials  and   Roses  of  Yesterday.     New  York,    1902.     Dehghtful 
talks  about  old-fashioned  gardens. 

Eliot,  Charles  Eliot,  Landscape  Architect,  Boston,  1903.     A  valuable  per- 
sonal memoir. 

Ely,  The  Practical  Flower  Garden,  New  York,  1911. 

Farwell,  Village  Improvement,  New  York,  1913.     Exactly  follows  its  title. 
Well  worth  reading. 

Gilpin,  Landscape  Gardening,   London,   1832.     A  famous  book  and  most 
important  in  its  day.     Its  present  value  is  chiefly  historical. 

Godfrey,  Gardens  in  the  Making,  London,  1914.     Some  useful  material  in 
this  work. 

Hamblin,  Book  of  Garden  Plans,  New  York,    1916.     Interesting  detailed 
matter  for  careful  study. 

Holland,  Garden  Blue  Book,  New  York,  1915. 

339 


TEXTBOOK     OF     LANDSCAPE     GARDENING 

Hubbard  and  Kimball,  Landscape  Design,  New  York,  1917.     An  extended 

discussion  of  the  theory  of  design  as  applied  to  landscape  gardening. 
Jaeger,  Gartenkunst  Sonst  and  Jetzt,  1885,  German.     The  most  elaborate 

history  of  landscape  gardening. 
Jekyll,  Wood  and  Garden,  London,  1908. 

Kellaway,  How  to  Lay  Out  Suburban  Home  Grounds,  New  York,  1907. 
Kemp,  Landscape  Gardening,   New  York,    1911.     American  revision  of  an 

old  English  work. 
King,  The  Little  Garden,  Boston,  1921. 

King,  The  Weil-Considered  Garden,  New  York,  1915.     A  readable  and  en- 
tertaining book. 
Kirkegaard,  Practical  Handbook  of  Trees,  Shrubs,  Vines  and  Herbaceous 

Perennials,  Boston,  1916.     A  convenient  list  of  plant  materials. 
Lange,   Die  Gartengestaltung  der  Neuzeit,  Leipzig,    1907.     Presents  some 

original  and  important  ideas. 
Lounsberry,  Gardens  Near  the  Sea,  New  York,  1910. 
McFarland,  My  Growing  Garden,   New  York,  1915.     Breezy,  interesting 

garden  lore  arranged  by  the  calendar. 
Mero,  American  Playground,  New  York,  1909. 
Migge,   Gartenkultur  des  20.     Jahrhunderts,  Jena,    1913.     Many  valuable 

ideas  and  drawings  from  the  Germany  of  pre-war  times. 
Miller,  What  England  can  Teach  Us  About  Gardening,  New  York. 
MuiR,  Our  National  Parks,  Boston,  1901.     Valuable  and  delightful. 
NoRTHEND,  Garden  Ornaments,  New  York,  1916. 
Parsons,  Landscape  Gardening,  New  York,  1891. 
Peets,  Practical  Tree  Repair,  New  York,  1916. 
Platt,  Italian  Gardens,  New  York,  1894. 
PucKLER-MusKAU,    Laudscapc    Gardening,    American    edition,    edited    by 

Samuel  Parsons,  Boston,  1917.     A  translation  of  a  famous  old  work  in 

German. 
Rehmann,  The  Small  Place,  New  York,  1918. 
Repton,  Landscape  Gardening,  American  edition  edited  by  Nolen,  Boston, 

1907.     Carefully  edited  extracts  from  the  work  of  England's  greatest 

landscape  gardener. 
Robinson,  William,  The  English  Flower  Garden,  London,  1883. 
Robinson,  William,  The  Garden  Beautiful.     London,  1907. 
Robinson,  Charles  Mulford,  City  Planning,  New  York,  1916. 
Rogers,   Garden  Planning.  New  York,   1911.     Much  good  matter  on  the 

subject  specified  in  the  title. 
Root,   Design  in  Landscape  Gardening,   New  York,   1914.     An  analytical 

study  of  underlying  principle-s. 
Root,    (editor)   Landscape   Garden  Series.     Davenport,   1921. 

340 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Scott,  Suburban  Home  Grounds,  New  York,  1870.  Of  some  historical  in- 
terest. 

Sedgwick  and  Cameron,  The  Garden  Month  by  Month,  New  York,  1907. 
Much  useful  matter  concerning  flowering  plants  conveniently  arranged. 

SiMONDS,  Landscape  Gardening,  New  York,  1920.  A  modern  discussion  by 
a  master  landscape  gardener. 

SoLOTAROFF,  Shade  Trees  in  Towns  and  Cities,  New  York,  1911. 

Tabor,  Suburban  Gardens,  New  York,  1913.  A  practical  book  for  prac- 
tical garden  makers. 

Taylor,  The  Complete  Garden,  New  York,  1921.  Contains  extended  and 
detailed  lists  of  plants  for  many  different  purposes.  Most  valuable 
in  studying  planting  plans. 

Thronger,  Book  of  Garden  Furniture,  London,  1903. 

Underwood,  The  Garden  and  its  Accessories,  Boston,  1907.  Valuable 
pictures  and  discussion  of  garden  furnishings. 

Van  Rensellaer,  Art  Out-of-Doors,  New  York,  1893.  An  enlightening 
discussion  of  principles. 

Waugh,  Landscape  Beautiful,  New  York,  1910.  Discursive  essays  on  land- 
scape gardening  and  the  natural  landscape. 

Waugh,  Landscape  Gardening,  New  York,  1900.     An  elementary  textbook. 

Waugh,  The  Natural  Style  in  Landscape  Gardening,  Boston,  1917. 

Waugh,  Outdoor  Theaters,  Boston,  1917. 

Waugh,  Rural  Improvement,  New  York,  1915. 

Weed,  Modern  Park  Cemeteries,  Chicago,  1912. 

Wilson,  Romance  of  Our  Trees,  New  York,  1920, 

WoLSELEY,  Gardens,  etc.,  London,  1919.     Some  worth-while  data. 

Yard,  Book  of  the  National  Parks,  New  York,  1919.  The  standard  work  on 
this  subject. 


341 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Many  persons  have  contributed  to  the  materials  in  this  book. 
It  is  impossible  to  name  them  all. 

Plans  or  drawings  have  been  supplied  by  the  following  land- 
scape architects:  F.  A.  Gushing  Smith,  Ghicago;  Professor  Frank 
H.  GuUey,  Ames,  Iowa;  R.  J.  Pearse,  Des  Moines,  Iowa;  Francis 
A.  Robinson,  Des  Moines,  Iowa;  R.  R.  Root,  Ghicago,  Ilhnois; 
Joseph  F.  Whitney,  Amherst,  Mass.;  WiUiam  E.  Philbrick,  Taunton, 
Mass.;  0.  G.  Simonds,  Ghicago,  lUinois  (courtesy  of  MacMillan 
Gompany,  New  York),  Samuel  D.  Zehrung,  Dayton,  Ohio.  I  am 
especially  indebted  to  my  daughter,  Dorothy  Waugh,  for  many 
of  the  best  designs  and  drawings  in  this  book. 

Photographs  have  been  contributed  by  Professor  John  W. 
Gregg,  Galifornia;  Professor  Henry  R.  Francis,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.; 
the  United  States  Forest  Service  and  National  Park  Service,  Wash- 
ington, D.  G.;  Mr.  0.  P.  Beckley,  Harrisburg,  Penn.,  and  many 
others.  Wherever  possible  acknowledgement  of  photographs  is 
made  with  the  reproductions.  With  rare  exceptions  photographs 
not  specifically  credited  are  made  by  the  author. 

The  chapters  dealing  with  surveying  are  largely  made  up  from 
the  notes  of  my  associate.  Professor  Arthur  K.  Harrison,  to  whom 
special  thanks  are  due  for  this  and  much  other  effective  help. 

To  all  who  have  helped  in  whatever  manner  most  cordial  thanks 
are  offered. 

FRANK  A.   WAUGH 


342 


INDEX 


Andre,  Edouard,  design  by,  55 
Architectural  Materials,  xv 
Art,  1 
Automobile  Turn,  63 

Baseball  Field,  88 
Bibliography,  339 
Bowling  Green,  94 
Brick  Walk,  17 
Brooks,  288 

Cemetery  Entrance,  58 
Cemetery  Improvement,  224 
Cemetery  Lot,  66 
Church  Grounds,  165 
Civic  Art,  xv 
Civic  Center,  210 
Climbing  Vines,  250 
Compass,  34 
Compass  Survey,  41 
Connecticut  State  Park,  327 
Contours,  51 
Country  Road,  279 
Country  Road  Systems,  231 
Country  School  Grounds,  216 
Country  Fair  Grounds,  199 
Course  of  Study,  xvi 
Court-House  Square,  174 
Culley,  Frank  H.,  map  by,  176 

Deciduous  Trees,  236 

Definitions,  1 

Design,  13 

Design,  Principles,  xv 

Domestic  Problems  of  Landscape, 

Drawing,  xiv 


Elwood,   Phillip  H.,  Jr.,   design  by, 

158-218 
Enlarging  and  Reducing  Plans,  24 
Entrance  Road,  55 
Evergreen  Trees,  240 

Farmstead  Group,  144 
Farmstead  Layout,  157 
Formal  Garden,  128 
Foundation  Planting,  261 

Garden  Gate,  108 

Garden  in  the  Natural  Style,  137 

Garden  Seat,  103 

Government  Survey  Road  Plan,  232 

Hand  Level,  45 
Hardy  Perennials,  254 
Hardy  Shrubs,  242 

Introduction,  1 

Landscape  Links,  295 
Landscape  Types,  288 
Lange,  Willy,  design  by,  58 
Leveling,  45 

Literature  of  Landscape   Gardening, 
338 

Mapping  Contours,  51 
Materials,  22 
Measuring  Distances,  41 
Mixed  Border,  269 
Motive,  10 

XV      National  Parks  and  Forests,  303 
Native  Landscape,  xv-272 
343 


INDEX 


Natural  Style  in  Landscape  Garden- 
ing, 137 
Neighborhood  Parks,  332 
New  England  Farm  Group,  153 
New  England  Road  Plan,  233 
New  York  State  Parks,  328 

Olmsted  Brothers,  design  by.  195 
Outdoor  Theater,  160 

Pace  Survey,  28 

Pantograph,  25 

Park  Entrance,  61 

Pearse,  R.  J.,  design  by,  144 

Perennials,  254 

Plant  Materials,  xiv 

Playground,  195 

Principles,  7 

Proportional  Dividers,  26 

Purcell  &  Elmslie,  design  by,  163 

Railroad  Station  Grounds,  168 
Robinson,  Francis  A.,  design  by,  200 
Root,  R.  R.,  design  by,  270 

Scaling  Plans,  21 

Shrubbery  Border,  266 

Simonds,  0.  C.,  design  by,  125 

Small  House  Lot,  112 

Small  Town  Square,  189 

Smith,  F.  A.  Gushing,  design  by,  61-67 


State  Forests,  322 

State  Parks,  322 

Streets,  Cross  Sections,  70 

Streets,  General  Study,  75 

Street  Trees,  Results,  85 

Street  Trees,  Technical  Studies,  82 

Street  Trees,  Varieties,  78 

Styles,  1 

Suburban  Home  Grounds,  118-124 

Surveying,  xiv 

Tennis  Court,  91 
Town  Common,  178 
Trees,  235 

Unity,  7 

Use  of  Compass,  34 

Utility  and  Beauty,  4 

Variety,  8 
Village  Center,  96 
Vines,  250 

Waugh,  Dorothy,  design  by,  109 
Waugh,  Frank  A.,  design  by,  214-220 
Weil-Head,  99 

Weston,  Mass.,  Village  Center,  96 
Wirth,  Theodore,  design  by,  193-197 
Whitney,  Joseph  F.,  design  by,  104 

Zehrung,  Samuel  D.,  design  by,  212 


344 


f 


